Effects of Mmorpg on Students Essay Example

Effects of Mmorpg on Students Essay 2006 By Neils L. Clark Thesis Committee: Ruth Duran Huard, Chairperson Dan Wedemeyer Jonathan Lillie Pete Britos Aknowledgements Harry Partika and Meryl Martin, without whom there would be no data, and Aaron Delwiche, without whom there would be no aspiration. ii Abstract This work begins by providing a comprehensive review of videogame-related literature in fields as diverse as communications, psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; this reading suggested that behaviors noted as detrimental in psychology and neuroscience were being observed in studies of Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) gamers. The current research provides data which suggests that a player’s perceived use of varied structural characteristics within a game is related to differing addiction and engagement levels. In particular, the constructs of negative valence, side activities, and interaction with real life friends within MMO games had distinct relationships with each addiction and engagement levels. When structural characteristics were controlled for, PvP advancement and guild preference appeared to be significant predictors of addiction or engagement. While the primary aim was to offer preliminary data comparing structural characteristics and addiction, this work also discusses the benefits and limitations of sampling respondents within MMO game worlds. iii We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer nbsp; Researchers in fields as diverse as psychology, neurobiology, and communication are all trying to answer this question. So far, all we can assume is that some people play too much, in a pattern that is very similar to many behavioral addictions recognized today. If addiction is operant among gamers, does this then suggest that other media forms might be probed for addictive qualities? Very few scholars have actually investigated addiction to games, however many directions for research can be inferred by comparing studies of games against addiction research. Addiction work in psychology and neuroscience provides criteria on addiction, even as it applies to Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) game players (Brown, 1997, Depue Collins, 1999, Charlton Danforth, 2004). Meanwhile Wood, Griffiths, Chappell and Davies (2004) have examined the â€Å"structural characteristics† of single player games, looking particularly at which of these elements were most important to videogame players. Researchers in more humanities-centered approaches, specifically communications, have isolated the major motivations driving players of MMO games (Yee, 2006). These motivations are connected to what may be called structural characteristics of MMO games; in other words, gamers may be motivated to play specific parts of a game. The varied literature does seem to suggest that comparing addiction fundamentals in psychology and neuroscience against studies of game player populations and/or structural characteristics will show certain viii connections. The hope is that by taking a preliminary look at game structures in relation to addiction criteria, it may become clear whether or not game structures have any relationship to addicted players. MMO games are massive graphical game worlds, wherein thousands of players continuously interact with one another in real-time. Gamers slay dragons, attract followers, and gather resources in worlds with complex politics, economies, and physics. MMO games attract millions of players worldwide. Although MMOs are a very new type of game, they already garner billions of dollars for the gaming industry. At least 28 new MMOs are scheduled for release in the next two years (Woodcock, 2005). Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft is currently the most popular, boasting over 6 million subscribers worldwide (Jenkins, 2006). While Warcraft commands a huge market share compared to other MMOs, there is an increasingly steep incline in growth of total active players (Woodcock, 2005). Some people play MMO games for 40, 60, even near 90 hours straight, and then die (Kim, 2006). Still, these may be anecdotal cases. It is speculated that most people can use computers for long periods of time without ill effect, while only a small few cannot remain â€Å"healthy† while doing so (Charlton, 2002). Nonetheless, if games appeal to a broad demographic (Yee, 2005, Griffiths, 2003), then this problem has the potential to affect an expansive demographic. Understanding the potential for addiction in games requires that researchers use better materials and sampling methodologies. Defining populations as â€Å"addicted† is problematic, as most studies fail to describe even their basic criteria. The current work attempts to describe criteria on some key studies in Internet and computer addiction, as they form the ix foundation underlying many studies of video game addiction. A previously tested and used definition of MMO addiction is then selected (Charlton Danforth, 2004). In the theory used, players begin with stages of â€Å"high engagement;† they enjoy play yet experience only lower order negative effects associated with these games: cognitive salience, euphoria, and heightened tolerance. At a point, some gamers enter a stage of â€Å"addiction†, experiencing more severe negative effects: behavioral salience, intra and interpersonal conflict, withdrawal, and relapse/reinstatement. That play degrades in this manner among certain players seems clear (Brown, 1997; Charlton, 2002). Less clear is what factors may prompt the move from enjoyable â€Å"engagement† to deleterious â€Å"addiction†. To this end, Wood and Griffiths et. al (2004) have suggested the importance of the structural characteristics of videogames. While their work does not explore MMO addiction, the notion of a game having inherent structures, even to the degree that different MMOs games may share certain structural traits, is central to this work. Structural characteristics in this paper are, then, meant to measure the perceived amounts of time spent at, frequency of interactions with, and perceived importance a game player puts on interaction with major generalizeable structures of the game world. For instance, whether they prefer adventuring with people they have met online, how much they value a certain type of player organization (guild), if they like to manipulate other players, or whether they want to sew pretty dresses. Within the literature, a number of structural characteristics are readily apparent, these being amount of time spent at different in-game activities (Wood, Griffiths, et. al, 2004), guild characteristics (Seay, Jerome et al. , 2004; Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003), performance of socially unacceptable behaviors (Yee, 2006), level of interaction with real life friends versus online friends (Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003), level of immersion (Yee, 2006), and level of individualism (Yee, 2006). Again, at present no study has examined the relationship, if any, between addiction and the structural characteristics inherent to videogames. A number of oversights highlight the need for interdisciplinary research. Gameplay types and motivations that have been cited in psy chological literature as destructively addictive are currently being observed in actual gaming populations within the fields of computer science, informatics, and communications. For example Nicholas Yee, studying MMO player behavior within the field of Communications, had determined â€Å"escapism† and â€Å"manipulation† (i. e. of other players) to be two major reasons to play (Yee, 2006). Meanwhile, in the field of psychology, at least one measure of Charlton’s addiction scale deals with gaming as an â€Å"escape from socialization† (Charlton, 2002). Additionally â€Å"negative valence†, or use of videogames to undergo nonsocially acceptable behavior, relates strongly to addiction, and is very similar to Yee’s measure of â€Å"manipulation† (Charlton Danforth, 2004). Overlap does exist between addiction literature and reported behavior. No empirical data, however, yet explores links between addiction, and preferences towards, performance of, or frequency of performance of general structures within games. While the gaming industry itself has given some treatment to the issue of addiction (Clark, 2006), it is unclear as to whether even game developers take the notion seriously (Adams, 2002). The gaming industry is nonetheless populated with a true melange of development houses, publishers, independent contractors, and other actors. As is evidenced by the major industry publications, they place value on academic work. Gamasutra. com, for instance, lends theses, books, and other academic works valuable web real estate. Industry xi leaders attend a wide variety of conferences on games. At the most recent game developer’s conference (GDC), all manner of game creators flooded a talk given by three major academics discussing upcoming gaming research. While some game developers will certainly protest to discussions of game addiction, many more realize the necessity for understanding the intersect between videogames and addiction. By comparing Charlton and Danforth’s model of MMO addiction (2004), against structural characteristics identified in this research, it may be possible to determine which elements of play, if any, relate to addiction. If any relation exists, it would provide early data on which parts of a game relate most strongly to the preferences of addicted players. It is important to note here that a relationship between structural characteristics and addiction may suggest a number of things. A robust set of relationships between structural characteristics and addiction likely does not imply that games themselves are addictive, nor would it be able to imply that only game players with addictive personalities will have problems. An utter lack of any relationship may indicate that games themselves have no link to addiction. Nonetheless if relationships do exist, the hope would then be that the academy, the gaming industry or others will verify these results for themselves so as to understand why certain structural characteristics may be linked to harmful behaviors. xii Chapter 1: Relevant Literature The â€Å"newness† of games, relative to established media forms, makes analysis of structural elements quite recent. DFC Intelligence estimated that the top 17 video game companies collectively made 24. 5$ billion USD in 2004, (Maragos, 2005) compared to the often cited six or seven billion overall value. MMO games represent a major force in the videogame industry. In China alone, MMO business was forecasted to grow from 580$ million USD in 2005, to 1. 7$ billion in 2010 (Jenkins, 2005). A recent report by the IDC estimates South Korea’s MMO revenues at 551$ million USD in 2004 (Reuters, 2005). Each successive MMO is essentially different. For instance, Star Wars Galaxies occurs within George Lucas’ famous Star Wars Galaxy, whereas Square Enix’s Final Fantasy XI occurs within the established Final Fantasy universe. Each has their own different rules that dictate the play environment. Each are, however, very similar in certain structural characteristics, the theoretical pieces which make up the game world. That these games, and this line of inquiry is so new, studies of gaming populations could be compared to that of movie going, at a time when only a dozen or so major movies had been made. A number of authors, in conducting demographies, ethnographies, and other exploratory studies of MMO populations have examined what could be called structural characteristics (Wood, 2004; Ducheneaut, 2004; Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003; Seay, 2004; Delwiche, 2003). Building on the MMO structural characteristics pulled from their work and explained below, this study seeks to find whether videogame structural characteristics are related to concepts of addiction. 1 Figure 1. Sony Online Entertainment’s Star Wars Galaxies brings to life elements from Lucas’ proprietary world, such as Jedi and rancor beasts It is also important to note that I, as the author, am connected to these videogames in such a way that this work is necessarily ethnographic in many respects. I am part of a generation that has grown up immersed in games, MMO games becoming a part of that for me upon joining some online friends in playing Star Wars Galaxies. Most recently I have been playing World of Warcraft. While this thesis centers on quantitative data, qualitative data is inseparable from this. While the ethnographically inclined researcher will no doubt want more in the way of direct quotes and nuanced situations, this thesis does center on quantitative data. My background will primarily show itself in discussions of MMO games. These discussions are intended for the audience of academics who may otherwise have had little experience with these worlds. 2 Addiction Literature Much of the game addiction research being performed today owes its methods to the foundation laid by early work done in Internet addiction. Ivan Goldberg’s joking 1995 inception of the â€Å"Internet Addiction Support Group† is generally credited with coining the phrase â€Å"Internet Addiction Disorder† (IAD) (Charlton Danforth, 2004), and highlights the tone of the early dialogue on addiction. In the same year, a study of problematic videogame use among first year psychology students (Griffiths and Dancaster, 1995) was conducted using the DSM-III criteria for pathological gambling (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The following year, â€Å"Internet Addiction† was introduced at the 1996 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association (Young, 2004). Numerous studies followed suit. Most of these studies used no more than ten items in diagnosing what they referred to as computer and Internet addictions. At most, affirmative answers on only 50% of these items were needed to fit operational definitions of addiction (Griffiths, 1999; Griffiths Hunt, 1998; Scherer, 1997; Young, 1998). While Internet and computer addiction should be seen as entities distinct from videogame addiction, the former two are discussed as part of a genealogical progression of research. For better or for worse, a great deal of the research into videogames takes its measures and methodologies directly from these earlier works. In some ways this helped to bring the notion of videogame addiction to light, yet in thers it introduced detrimental misconceptions. While it is possible that addiction to a game may be similar to Internet or computer addictions, should either actually exist, games are distinct from computer applications and the Internet. The goal of this addiction section is to trace the literature regarding non-substance addiction, examining its roots in Brown’s model, 3 addiction’s initial applications by Young in Internet dependence/addiction, then finally to Charlton’s conceptions of engagement and addiction. Despite the serious dearth of academic information regarding the relationship between games and addiction, gamers throw the term â€Å"addiction† about quite readily. Among game players it is colloquial to regard casual play as â€Å"addiction,† regardless of whether a person’s play is healthy or not. Prominent advertisements and reviews for games use the word â€Å"addiction† synonymously with â€Å"quality. † Highlighting the pervasive use of the term as well as gamers’ perceptions of addiction, one player asked to participate in this study noted that it was their first time playing in months. Later they stated, â€Å"but I was addicted like all the rest. † Contacting another player inside the game provoked a strong negative reaction, at first. However, after the researcher apologized and left that player alone for a time, the same player began spontaneously talking about their play, to make this short I no longer work and I play this game almost all day every day for over a year now. The sustained misuse of perceptions and stereotypes on the part of marketers will likely have an increasingly devastating impact on game players that do have problems. Understanding the intersect between addiction and videogames is a necessary precursor toward first, understanding what to regard as addiction, and second, search for clues as to how we might begin to help the people whose play is having a clearly negative affect on their lives. Brown’s Hedonic Management Model of Addiction Iain Brown (1993; 1997) wrote a number of articles regarding his â€Å"hedonic management model of addiction,† a model created to apply to non-substance addiction generally. In the most basic sense, Brown argues that all people use certain activities to 4 ake themselves feel good. Some people, whether through gradual development, or the sudden discovery of a very powerful stimulus, learn to use this one stimulus to keep themselves feeling good all the time, increasingly at the cost of their long term goals. Recovery is a matter of regaining a normal repertoire of activities and realization of an improved long-term rate of reward. Brown additionally di stinguishes addiction as value-free, which means that though an activity has acquired a â€Å"motivational monopoly† (Hodge, p. 4) within an individual, it is rarely without benefit. Two obvious examples would be addiction to jogging or to computer games, possible benefits being physical health and technical knowledge, respectively. Neuroscience Without belaboring Neuroscience, it remains important to give at least a sideways glance toward the established role of dopamine in the brain, and how neurological veins of research may lend greater understanding to MMO addiction. Where Brown’s psychological studies suggested that â€Å"non-substance ingesting †¦activities† could create behaviors very similar to those found in substance-addicts (Brown, 1991), meaning that a strongly psychological concept likely underlies both substance, and non-substance addiction. Goaloriented motivation is based on two major factors, â€Å"the availability of reward, and the effort required to obtain it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Depue and Collins, 1999). Brown reflects this, in saying: â€Å"An addiction develops its maximum power and momentum through the prolonged action of several positive feedback loops. These positive feedback loops begin with a series of cognitive failures which lead to the strengthening of an acquired drive for particular feeling states as a goal associated with the performance of the addictive activity. As the acquired 5 drive strengthens, so the single activity becomes more and more salient as almost the sole source of reward. † (Brown, in Hodge, 1997, P. 29) Considering that MMO games contain nearly pervasive reward, with such rewards immensely easier to obtain relative to RL (The most common abbreviation for â€Å"real life† within a MMO game) goals and rewards, it is then not entirely nreasonable to expect many players to experience greater apathy toward RL goals, as they are not only overshadowed by much more transparent and apparently efficant goals (i. e. slaying a dragon, or crafting a weapon yet unseen on a particular server), but that in-game goals themselves take such an amount of time as to make RL goals all the more difficult to obtain. Here the â€Å"availability of reward† and â€Å"effort required to obtain it† reflect Brown’s concept of â€Å"hedonic gap†, the difference between the strength of a goal, and personal susceptibility. Depue and Collins state that individual differences in dopamine processing can predetermine certain individuals as more likely to develop addictive behaviors. In this way, hard science and Brown’s model both seem to be pieces of a larger puzzle. Internet Addiction As recently as 1996, Internet addiction was brought up as a potential disorder among mental health professionals. Criteria for â€Å"Internet Dependence† was made to be based off of the DSM-IV, the American Diagnostics and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders’ criteria for problematic gambling (American Psychological Association, 1994; Young, 1996), provided as Appendix D. As seen in Appendix E, the â€Å"Diagnostic Questionnaire† forwarded by Young used eight criteria, rather than ten, yet maintains a cutoff of five affirmative responses in order to define â€Å"dependents† as Internet-addicted. While she defends five of 6 eight as a â€Å"rigorous cutoff,† she does state that â€Å"It should be noted that while this scale provides a workable measure of Internet addiction, further study is needed to determine its construct validity and clinical utility. † (Young, 1996). More recent versions of her diagnostic questionnaire for Internet addiction are larger, and scaling. For instance currently, her website offers a 20 item questionnaire, scaling from 20-100 points. It segregates Internet use into three categories, causing: no real problems, some problems, or significant problems. Charlton (2002) has suggested that checklist-type questionnaires are likely to overestimate the number of people addicted, and has otherwise questioned her work. That she provides no real theoretical framework is troubling, especially considering that so many studies, be they for Internet, computer, or even gaming addiction, have imported her framework verbatim into their studies. Engagement and Addiction Though this conception of Internet addiction is likely to overestimate the number of individuals who require clinical help (Charlton Danforth, 2004), it was the first attempt at forging criteria for over-use. Brown’s six criteria, covered later, have been used by Mark Griffiths, another psychologist active in the field of computer, Internet, and even video game effects. But what of claims that videogame playing lends itself to learning skills which can prove beneficial in the contemporary marketplace? John Charlton makes an attempt at determining whether his concept of â€Å"high computer engagement†, merely enjoying a large amount of computing, relates to Brown’s framework of addiction. More specifically, do any of Brown’s six criteria relate to a non-pathological enjoyment, while others relate to a more deleterious addiction? 7 Brown and Charlton Though Brown does present his model in layers, meaning that certain activities are by nature more destructive, Charlton’s factor analysis allows us to see which layers are in actuality most destructive in terms of computer use (Charlton, 2002). This is especially relevant when computers act as an almost necessary gateway to jobs, communication, and regular leisure for many people. Charlton found moderately high use to relate to the less harmful of Brown’s elements, which he calls â€Å"engaging† qualities. These include tolerance, euphoria, and cognitive salience (thinking about an activity a lot). The â€Å"addictive† qualities are behavioral salience (engaging in the activity a lot), conflict (arguments within yourself and with others over the extent of your usage), withdrawal, and relapse/reinstatement. Engagement and Addiction in MMO Play Charlton’s method has been applied to Massively Multiplayer Online games, with additional factors having been found to relate to the concept of â€Å"addiction† (Charlton Danforth, 2004). The three additional factors are â€Å"negative valence† (a respondent’s indulgence in societally unvalued activities), â€Å"attractiveness† (whether a respondent perceives themselves as attractive), and â€Å"emotional stability†. The specific questions used to survey MMO gamers are provided in Appendix B, Part Two: Personality/Gaming Behavior. Player Populations and Structural Characteristics of MMO games While we may not know a great deal about addiction as it relates to these games, there has nonetheless been a great deal of work exploring these worlds. The methods of these studies may not be perfect, yet they nonetheless give strong hints as to who is playing and why. Even if many demographic variables have yet to be sampled scientifically, what 8 exists can be compared against information on addiction in order to garner information regarding these worlds. Figure 2. Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft Each MMO, for instance EverQuest or World of Warcraft, is a different game, with different mechanics. Within games there can be large differences as well, as each game will, on average run one, 20, or even 100+ servers, depending on the popularity. Blizzard’s World of Warcraft, currently the real world’s largest MMO, runs at least 108 servers, which they call â€Å"realms. † This number increases as World of Warcraft gains popularity, yet may collapse if newer games grow in favor. A server is a single copy of the game world, with its own internal mechanics; likely variations between servers are community, economy, or nationality. To be more specific, after purchasing an MMO and creating a billing account, one will have to choose which particular â€Å"server† of this game world they would like to play in. The bulk of player population studies do not explicitly explain how they treat sampling 9 with regard to servers or games, though this is not the major downfall to such studies so far. A major sampling downfall is that the bulk of studies looking at player populations have been elicited through outside websites, particularly â€Å"community websites† for particular games. Two major concerns with this are (1) the sheer volume of such popular community websites, and (2) the low likelihood that those seeking community outside the game will be representative of those playing within (especially those pathologically addicted). Structural Characteristics as a Theoretical Concept Though literature pertaining to videogames is growing rapidly, few have stopped to actually define videogames or analyze their structure (Wood, Griffiths, et al. , 2004). In a study of more traditional single-player games, Wood et al. et out to assess video game structure by way of asking which structural characteristics were most salient among game players (Wood et al. , 2004). Many of his structural characteristics were not entirely applicable to MMO play, for instance ‘duration of game’ and ‘mapping’ (creating custom levels for a single player game). Other characteristics apply to MMO games, such as interface options, use of humor, and brand assurance, ye t were omitted from this study in order to restrict its size. 10 Figure 3. Structural characteristics map the structures available for interaction within these games, and include exploring new areas. Yee’s MMO Motivations Nicholas Yee, one of the more recognizable names in the study of MMO effects, in a 3 year period surveyed over 30,000 players from the MMO games Ultima Online, EverQuest, Dark Age of Camelot, and Star Wars Galaxies. In a paper set to be published in 2006, he explores positive and negative effects of MMO playing. Qualitatively, Yee identified five factors of MMO motivation: achievement, relationship, immersion, escapism, and manipulation. It is important to differentiate motivations for play from structural characteristics, the actual structure within the game that is being manipulated. This distinction notwithstanding, the criteria used by Yee can be modified and clarified so that these motivations may be measured as if they were structural characteristics. For instance, Yee’s concept of 11 manipulation includes the questions, â€Å"I scam other people out of their money or equipment†, and, â€Å"I like to taunt or annoy other players. † His questions do not have to be changed drastically for a successful query of MMO structures. The wording of some measures taken from Yee remain unchanged. In â€Å"immersion†, for example, creating a back-story for one’s character can be entirely in the mind of the game player, or it can be an integral part of the game. Eve Online and City of Heroes are two games where players are encouraged to enter information about their character’s history, in a structure that allows other players to then read that information and/or back-story. World of Warcraft has no structure for this, but it is not uncommon to hear a player talking about their created back-story on an RP, or role-playing server. The same structure is here operating in radically different ways, sometimes even within a single game. Demographics of MMO game players What we know about gaming comes primarily from Yee’s studies, particularly his Daedalus Project. While nearly all of the information collected by Yee came by way of selfselected respondents seeking out his surveys, the many thousands of people attracted for his studies have made his data likely the most widely cited in academic work on game player demographics. In terms of employment, 50. % of respondents were shown to work full time, 22. 2% were full-time students, and 13% of female players referred to themselves as â€Å"homemaker. † Additionally, the number of female MMO players seems to increase with age, surpassing the number of males in the 23-28 age range, and in each subsequent age range (Yee, 2006). Yee argues that this data dispels the notion that all gamer players are unemployed, male, and young; rather games have a universal appeal. 12 Other findings from Yee are that 60. % of respondents had played for at least 10 contiguous hours, this effect being roughly equivalent along age groups. 15. 8% of men and 59. 8% of women play MMOs with a romantic partner, while 25. 5% of men and 39. 5% of women play with a family member, suggesting that women are primarily being introduced to MMO games by a spouse or family member. Most importantly, Yee points out, â€Å"†¦the data demonstrate that MMORPGs appeal to a very wide demographic and that this appeal is strong and elicits high time investment from users. † (Yee, 2006). Comparing the Social Networks within MMOs with those of the Mafia â€Å"†¦the mafia initially grew out of an ancient honor system where elders were entrusted to negotiate in conflicts and pass judgments that the others were obliged to adhere to. The fact that Sicily historically has been targeted by outside interests such as the Spanish and fascists has also contributed to a need for organized resistance against outside oppression. The transition into a criminal organization came later, possibly more or less because the mafia realized that they could use their powerful organization to achieve fortune for themselves. This pattern is repeated in EQ [EverQuest]. The strong emphasis on reputation in the creation of social networks grows out of a need from the players to self-govern their gaming environment in order to secure a positive experience in the presence of potential disturbances and a simultaneous absence of an effective and reliable governing system. But ultimately these networks are also used to take shortcuts through, or trick, the formal rules of the system. † (Jakobsson Taylor, 2003) Comparing EverQuest’s prominent framework for social structure, the guild, to the social structure of the mafia should seem laughable at first. The above quote however illustrates and contextualizes ways in which play style shifts strongly within MMO games, 13 favoring these social networks as players approach the highest levels of in-game achievement. Put another way, where a player’s guild, online friends, and real-life connections at early stages of play provided the support required to succeed, at the end-game they become the connections that allow a player to dominate. Figure 4. The members of both social and goal-oriented guilds will occasionally line up for group photographs. Here it begins to become apparent that Yee’s (2006) conceptions that deal with interaction (how much a person talks, shares feelings, etc. ) and perhaps also individualism, a person’s preference toward playing on their own, may need to be expanded. In the mafia, family provides a strong foundation for commitment. You stick with your family, and they stick with you. Jakobsson and Taylor are here arguing that MMO games work similarly, where people who know each other outside of the game have a much higher commitment to each other than to friends that they know strictly through the game. The idea here was then 14 to split up communication between these two types of connections; real-life friend, and strictly online friend (individuals or guildmates), and then to rework these criteria in order to better reflect levels of interaction. Individualism was expanded from Yee’s group/solo criteria in part due to this emphasis on interaction. If some players prefer playing with reallife friends, and others with online friends, then perhaps those that prefer no interaction at all differ in equally significant ways. Project Massive and Guild Communication The self-effacingly named Project Massive sampled from five MMO games in order to â€Å"investigate how players play, communicate, and organize. † Tracking players via guilds, the study reinforced what many others have said: that the social

Updated List Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores

Updated List Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’ve already taken the SAT, you know it will likely be an important component of your college applications. Maybe you've set a goal score for yourself based on the types of colleges you’re interested in. Even if you haven’t taken the SAT yet or are still considering whether to take it, you probably want to know more about what the most competitive colleges and universities expect when it comes to applicants’ standardized test scores. I’ve compiled a list of colleges with the highest average SAT scores for admitted students. You’ll be able to compare your own SAT scores (or goal scores) with those of top colleges and universities. I’ll also talk about what these rankings actually mean so that you can interpret this information effectively. For example, are these schools the best schools you can attend? Are they the most competitive? What do you do if your SAT scores are below the listed averages? Read on for a list of the top schools ranked by SAT score, and answers to the above questions! Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores: Rankings Let's get right to the good stuff: the list! The colleges below are ranked by mean (average) composite SAT score for admitted students.We've also included the mean scores for each SAT section: Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) and Math. Rank School EBRW Math Composite 1 California Institute of Technology (Caltech) 780 790 1560 2 Duke University 760 780 1540 2 Harvard University 770 770 1540 2 University of Chicago 770 780 1540 2 Yale University 770 770 1540 3 Columbia University 760 770 1530 3 Vanderbilt University 770 780 1530 4 Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering 750 770 1520 4 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 750 780 1520 4 Princeton University 760 770 1520 4 Stanford University 760 770 1520 5 Harvey Mudd College 740 780 1510 5 Johns Hopkins University 750 760 1510 5 Northwestern University 760 770 1510 5 Rice University 750 770 1510 5 University of Pennsylvania 750 760 1510 5 Washington University in St. Louis 760 770 1510 6 Amherst College 750 750 1500 6 Bowdoin College 750 750 1500 6 Brown University 750 750 1500 6 Dartmouth College 740 750 1500 6 Pomona College 740 750 1500 7 Carnegie Mellon University 740 760 1490 7 Swarthmore College 740 740 1490 7 Tufts University 740 750 1490 7 University of Notre Dame 740 750 1490 7 Webb Institute 740 770 1490 7 Williams College 750 730 1490 8 Carleton College 740 740 1480 8 Cornell University 740 760 1480 If you want more detailed information about admissions statistics (and where you happen to fit) for any of the above schools, click the link to take you to that specific school's admissions page.On this page, you can look at average SAT scores as well as estimate your chances of getting in by entering your test scores and GPA. If you want SAT score information for other schools not listed above, simply search for "[School Name] PrepScholar admissions" on Google. The list above won't mean much without a Rosetta Stone of SAT scores. How Do You Interpret These SAT Rankings? Hopefully, you nowhave an idea of the highest expectations schools can have for students' SAT scores. This information isn't that helpful, though, if you don't know how students tend to perform on the exam. The SAT iscurrently scored out of 1600 points: 800 points possible for the Math section, and 800 points possible for the EBRW section. Currently, the average composite SAT score is 1060. In general, a student is considered to have an excellent SAT score if she is in the top 25% of test takers. To fall within this category, you'd needa composite score of around 1200or higher. On the other hand, a student is considered to have a low SAT score if he is in the bottom 25% of test takers, with a composite score around 910 or lower. Read our guide to learn more about how to think about "good" or "bad" SAT scores. Are These Really the Top Schools? The average SAT scores listed for the schools above are much higher than the overall average - in fact, some of them are pretty close to perfect. Butif a school has dizzyingly high average SAT scores, does this mean it's necessarily a top school? In a sense, yes. Schools that attract the strongest applicants tend to do so because they have excellent reputations and offer strong undergraduate programs. When schools have a stronger student body - undergraduateswith very high SAT scores, for example - they tend to build up a positive reputation and get more competitive as a result. It's a positive feedback loop: strong students with strong SAT scores continue to attract strong students with strong SAT scores. Many of the schools on the list above are ranked on well-known "best colleges and universities" lists, like the one that US News World Report publishes each year. These ranking systems aren't perfect, but they do take many quantifiable factors into account (besides just standardized test scores) when evaluating US schools. You’ll notice, for example, that all of the Ivy League schools are on this list.These schools have such high average SAT scores because they are well-reputed enough to attract students with exceptionalscores. A small side note: you might have noticed a trend in the scores that made you pause. Several of the schools listed tend to have higher Math averages than EBRW averages. Quite a few of these schools are heavy in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, math);these sorts of schools may weight test scores more heavily in the application process than your average liberal arts institution, which could account in part for their high test averages. With thatsaid,it’s important to note that the best school you can attend isthe school that’s the best fit for you. Perhaps you’re interested in schools with strong Romance-language departments, core curriculums, or generous financial aid programs. The reality is, not all of the schools listed above will meet every student’s criteria. What’s most important to your success in college and beyond is that you find an institution that is able to support and foster your interests, passions, and future career path. You wouldn’t list a school renowned for its engineering program as your top choice, for instance, if you wanted to major in comparative literature! Are These Schools Really the Most Competitive? The way you gauge a school's competitivenessis by looking at its acceptance rate.The greater theratio of student applicants to spots in a new freshman class, the lower a school's acceptance rate will be. Schoolsare defined as competitive if many students are vying for a limited number of spots. In terms of acceptance rates, many of the schools above are some of the most competitive in the country. Several have acceptance rates of less than 10%.There are some equally competitive niche institutionsnot included on the list, such as Cooper Union, the US Naval Academy, the US Military Academy, and Alice Lloyd College - all of which have extremely low acceptance rates. In sum, the top schools ranked by SAT scores do tend to be competitive, but they're not the only institutions with very low acceptance rates. Just because you're lagging behind the group doesn't mean you won't have an opportunity to catch up. What If Your SAT Scores Fall Below the Listed Averages? Do You Still Have a Chance of Getting In? So what do you do if you're trying to get into a very competitive school, but your scores don't measure up? In order to be a competitive applicant,you’ll have to make up for that perceived weakness elsewhere in your application. You can do this, for example, by earning an exceptionally high GPA or making an impressive commitment to community service. Admissions officers consider students' applications holistically - meaning that they don't just focus on standardized test scores. The extent to which you have to "make up" for a low test score with other parts of your application depends on how far you fall below the school's average. At an elite school, it's unlikely you'll get in with very low SAT scores, even if the rest of your application is strong. So how do you know whether your scores fall below a dangerous threshold? Because the scores above are averages, you know that about half of all accepted students will have SAT scores lower than the ones listed. You can also access information on the â€Å"middle 50† for each school - i.e., the scores at the 25th and 75th percentiles for admitted students. This will tell you the range of scores that the middle 50% of accepted students have. You’re generally a safer applicant if you fall in this middle 50% than if you’re in the bottom 25% of students. Another factor to consider is that each school will weigh applicants’ SAT scores a bit differently in the application process. Schools like Washington University in St. Louis, for example, are well known for heavily favoring students with excellent scores. Some other schools may forgive below-average test scores if another part of your application impresses the admissions committee (refer to my examples above). There are even schools that don't require test scores at all! If you want to calculate your chances of getting into a particular school, use our admissions pages. You can find these by Googling "[School Name] PrepScholar admissions." These pages will give you more information about the school you're interested in. Finally, if it turns out that your SAT scores just aren't up to par,consider taking the ACT. All four-year US colleges and universities accept ACT scores, and some students strongly feel that they perform better on the ACT than on the SAT. What's Next? If you're considering adding some of these schools to your college application list, you'll want your SAT scores to be the best they can be. Check out our famous guide to getting a perfect 1600 on the SAT, written by an expert perfect scorer. Don't have a ton of time to prep for your SATbut still want to improve your score? Then read our top SAT tips and strategiesto help you improve your exam performance. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The difference between informative and argumentative speech Assignment

The difference between informative and argumentative speech - Assignment Example Whether argumentative or informative, all speeches have a purpose. There should be a reason why the speech is necessary and a desired outcome from the speech. Informative speeches are generally given as a form of instruction with the desired outcome to be something such as to have a more informed audience or to introduce a new idea. The fundamental goal of the informative speech is to â€Å"provide interesting, useful and unique information to your audience† (Writing @ CSU, 2010). The audience is often called together with the expectation of hearing a speech and the atmosphere is almost always relatively calm. This is not necessarily true with occasions in which an argumentative speech is called for. These speeches are given with the intent to convince the audience of a specific point of view. This type of speech may be a planned speech, a sales pitch or even an impromptu delivery at a political meeting in which the audience may or may not be calm and receptive. The desired ou tcome is to maintain or acquire supporters. The topics most often addressed by these types of speeches are another area in which the concepts might overlap but the focus is skewed. Informative speeches, for example, can be given about objects, processes, events or concepts. All of these can be covered by an argumentative speech as well. The difference is that the informative speech focuses on factual information about these things, offering ideas and proof that can be generally accepted as fact or the correct answer. Argumentative speeches often address these topics in ways that the conclusions reached are debatable – there may be more than one right answer. An example of this difference is an informative speech that instructs the audience about the specific features available on a new hybrid car against an argumentative speech about that same car that focuses on why those features are better than similar features being offered by another

International Management Group and Competitors of IMG Research Paper

International Management Group and Competitors of IMG - Research Paper Example Along with the global giant's several local industries to contribute to the growth of the sports industry worldwide. A few sports goods manufacturers of the world are like Puma, Slazenger, Stiga, Dunlop, and Yonex. The estimated size of the entire sports industry in 2010 is expected at $414 billion (Plunkett Research Ltd., â€Å"Sports Industry Overview†). The competitors of IMG are Interpublic, Clear Channel Entertainment (formerly known as SFX), William Morris Agency, Creative Artist Agency, Magnum Sports and Entertainment, Nike, WPP group, Dentsu, TBA Entertainment, Ford models and Pro Form Golf. The overall areas on which the competitor companies are mainly engaged are like athletes, models, authors, speakers, artists, actors, events, television production, consulting/ licensing, film production, money management, advertising, and academies. Clear channel and Interpublic focuses on a number of areas except for television production, money management, and academies. William Morris Agency focuses only in the areas like authors, speakers, artists, actors, and athletes. Magnum Sports focus on athletes, models, and events. Nike’s focus is only on athletes and events. WPP and Dentsu focus only on academics and licensing/consulting. TBA focuses on speakers, actors, events, television products and advertising. Ford concentrates on the athletes only. One of the competitors ProForm Golf is involved only in the area of academics. The vision of the firm, the association of a number of renowned athletes, and the goodwill of the founder may be said to be a few of the competitive advantages of the firm. In 2000, the market value of American sports was approximately $200 billion, which made it country’s 11th largest industry. IMG in turn was credited with having invented the field of sports management almost 40 years earlier. At present IMG represents a number of the most talented and exciting athletes, including golf star Tiger Woods and tennis players  like Venus and Serena Williams. Mark Hume McCormack was declared as the most powerful man in golf by Golf Magazine, Sports Illustrated labeled him as the most powerful man in sports and Tennis magazine figured him as the most powerful man in tennis.

Reflective Learning and the Reflective Practitioner Essay

Reflective Learning and the Reflective Practitioner - Essay Example My reception at the company was quite good and promising because the company expected a lot from me since I had come from one of the most developed countries; guaranteeing me the opportunity to must have come with more ideas than had been. Due to my most expected exposure, I was taken to the core section of management (operation management) to initiate and help implement strategies that would increase the amount of returns earned from the company’s products. The first challenge, and the most crucial one, was based on the mode of communication. In Kenya English is the official language, while Kiswahili is the national language. Therefore, most people largely used and were fluent in Kiswahili than they were in English. On the contrary, I could only speak English, and a little bit of the French. Other limiting factors were to do with the social and environmental challenges. In the first instances, these factors inhibited my performance to a level that I equally thought that the environment was not fit for me; reason being that it had affected my ability to showcase the benefits to the company. From this, I came to learn that excellent performance in academics does not guarantee a successful performance in the real life situations. As a solution, I had to attend classes on Kiswahili language, socialize and interact more with the local for social acceptance, and change my lifestyle for the purpose of environmental adaptation and

Links Between Investment in Infrastructure and Job Creation

Links Between Investment in Infrastructure and Job Creation Sourav Roy (13060242044) Sourav Das (13060242043) Saptarshi Maiti (13060242036) Devika Kannan (13060242013) Executive summary The effective tool to create jobs is counter-cyclical spending on infrastructure. As the demand for private sector is weak, the government helps the people with jobs and also aggregate demand. Investments of infrastructure are divided into two parts: Economic sectors include increasing efficiency in transportation, including roads, railways and waterways, Social sectors such as education, water and sewage system. Investments in a local scenario and their impact on development strategies lead to creation of more jobs, greater ownership, and can rapidly boost up the local economies. This is particularly applicable in times of crisis. Decentralized public investment should be favored where ever possible. It is very important to assess the resultant labour output of these investments with respect to its impact on direct as well as indirect and employment, not only to assess their productivity in short run, but also to assess the long run impact on growth and other subsidiary effects. There are number of infrastructure projects in low and medium-income countries which are financed fully or partially by IFI. Institutions like these should make an effort to allow for larger labour participation in infrastructure development. Fiscal decentralization can be defined as a two-dimensional policy: 1). Decentralization of tax instrument. 2). Decentralization of expenditure. The relation between decentralization and government efficiency can be divided into two large areas: a) The classical theory: There are three main contribution where this theory can be restricted, those are Tiebout’s model of local public good provision where decentralization coupled with mobile households solve the problem of the efficient provision of public goods. The second most influential contribution is of Oates’(1972) Decentralization Theorem that involves the tradeoff between centralized and decentralized provision of public goods in favour of former if average preferences across citizen of different region are equal. The theorem stresses on to maximize social welfare. And the last is Leviathan hypothesis where it shows the mechanism for constraining the expansionary tendencies of government mechanism. b) The second generation theory: The effect of fiscal decentralization has been modeled to embody the political process and the possibility of asymmetric information across political agents. Description of Policy Challenges According to the paper, on an average major percentage of total stimuli package in infrastructure is spent in emerging economies as compared to developed economies. The policy-brief paper tried to link infrastructure spending to job creation across economies. In this section the paper mentioned the main challenge of gestation period of the infrastructure projects. It viewed the time differential in processing of such projects as a challenge, as it failed to produce the expected outcomes on the stipulated time during a crisis situation. It later pointed out how infrastructures in different areas bear different results. Infrastructural Investment in rural area created more jobs than in urban areas as the jobs in rural areas are more labour intensive. It said, â€Å"The policy challenge is to match the targeting of infrastructure investments with the targeting of employment creation, be it by category or geographic area.† It explained the challenge with the help of examples of policies in three economies: USA, Indonesia and Egypt. The paper said that in USA infrastructure expenses consists only a minor portion of the total fiscal stimulus. According to the paper, expenditures on infrastructure accumulated up to 30 September 2009 amounted to US$4.44 billion or 2.6 per cent of the total fiscal stimulus during the period. However, according to a few articles in Forbes and Bloomberg Obama is planning to spend highly on infrastructure like science research and education and upgrade bridges, ports and roads to create more jobs. (Runningen, 2013) (Lenzner, 2011). The amount spent by USA in infrastructure is huge but, if we consider the share of infrastructure in GDP is only 2.4%. In USA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was passed in 2009 which was a stimulus package to help recover the country from the Great Recession. The Act followed Keynesian macroeconomics wherein high public expenditure was necessary for improving the unemployment condition and further economic deterioration. USA’s planned stimulus package after revision was 831 billion dollars and according to Paul Krugman it was too less though he was supportive of the law. (Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman: Too Little Stimulus in Stimulus Plan, 2009) Some of the critics for this policy said that it was too slow and had a huge price tag but according to the data the policy had resulted in decrease in unemployment as the unemployment rate is around 6and half percentage points lower. (Blinder Zandi, 2010) The policy paper further gave examples of Indonesian and Egyptian stimulus package. The Indonesian Government spent 7.6 billion dollars to boost aggregate demand and this spending on infrastructure was 17% of the GDP. Estimation of the government to set a job creation target of over one million workers was surpassed. As for the Egyptian government the stimulus package was worth 2.82 billion dollar in the financial year 2008-09. According to various estimates it stated that the complete stimulus package is expected to create between 661,420 and 729,650 new job opportunities. This section of the policy paper concluded by mentioning that some amount of public expenditure (read infrastructure spending) is good as it helps in growth and development of economy through skill development of the labour and promotion of SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). It further wrote â€Å"spending cuts in such forms of investment would have a serious negative impact on employment and recovery unless ways could be found to maintain services with reduced costs.† Policy Options to address the challenge The examples illustrated above clearly reflect the issues related to the number of jobs created and the targeting of different sections of labour force. The focus of policy making in this area should shift from the amount of money spent to the number of jobs created relative to the set of employable workers and to the amount of public services provided. A prolonged strategy needs to be developed whose objective would be to provide short term relief from unemployment and long term creation of jobs aiming to meet the structural infrastructure deficits. Measures to guarantee timely implementation Higher public spending in periods of crisis for job creation involves a lag which is inherent in the cycle of identifying, formulating and approving projects. Therefore, objective should be a speedy and timely implementation, as an economy which is already in recession can deteriorate even quickly. The rate at which jobs can be created depends on the type of projects (large construction projects versus small or medium maintenance projects). Another important factor which determines the pace of the projects is the distribution of public tender procedures. A number of countries experience effective execution of public investment at less than 50% of the amount budgeted. Therefore, the short term objective is to achieve full execution of available resources rather than just allocation of additional resources. In order to ensure the timely implementation and to reap benefits from the existing administrational structures, public work schemes can be given additional funds to scale up. Taking up planned infrastructure and improving the efficiency of implementation of works formulated in public investment programmes are few of the features of the fiscal stimulus package. Decentralization of standard administrative procedures and dividing them into small grants at local levels to employ small-scale local contractors, labourers and local resources to efficiently enhance the employment opportunities of the infrastructure component of the packages is often a more effective than centrally planned and executed projects. Targeting Traditionally, the options of targeting were limited in public investment programmes, since majority of the works were generally executed by private enterprises. As objectives of targeting can be influenced to a certain degree through innovations to procurement systems hence, Public Employment Programmes, in which special targeting mechanisms can be applied, play an important complementary role. An important means of targeting constitutes the prioritization of investment projects in areas most affected by crisis. Subcontracting small works to local labourers allows for the targeting of special groups, such as women. In regular maintenance activities, women may take a larger share of job opportunities. Impact of infrastructure spending An investment in infrastructure is the first stepping stone towards the long run development and also takes into account immediate social needs. Generally, investments in infrastructure includes those in economic, such as, improving transportation viz. roads, railways and waterways and social sectors, such as health and education, treatment of water and sewage, and other public sectors. These investments depend mostly on the urgent requirements of the country. A major part of these expenditures can be executed through small-scale or medium-scale enterprises and thereby promoting them. Investments in infrastructure with a focus on the employment have a strong employment multiplier effect, since it leads to job creation both directly and indirectly. Increased usage of local goods and services creates a high indirect employment effect, which in turn leads to higher local incomes and thereby stimulates the local demand and consumption. However, this has to be taken cautiously as the way a job is defined varies from one country to another. There is no valid way to measure the direct employment created because of the fiscal stimulus package, as most countries face problems in gathering reliable data. Therefore, we need a consolidated effort to improving our way of understanding and documentation of the effects, in order to provide better guidance on the measures where the effects of multiplier are most prominent, given the requirements of the particular country. Conclusion Investments in infrastructure should be launched to build up capital for sustainable development and inclusive growth: human capital including skills, employment (including green jobs) and entrepreneurship development, and physical capital such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of infrastructure. As told earlier decentralized public investment should be preferred:- First, because decentralized decision-making processes are faster and local population more committed to the projects. It improves targeting and its proper use and maintenance. Secondly, the works undertaken are usually on a smaller scale and involve less expensive tenders, which mean there is less need for heavy machinery. Third, decentralized tenders are more likely to be executed by local firms using workers from the area, thus boosting the local economy as a whole. Because many infrastructure projects in low and medium countries are co- financed by international financial institutions, these institutions should make sure that their regulations allow for an increase in labour content in infrastructure development. Readjusting the design, procurement and contracting modalities of such products could have a major effect on employment. Works Cited Blinder, A. S., Zandi, M. (2010, December). Stimulas Worked. Retrieved from www.imf.org: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2010/12/blinder.htm Council-on-Foreign-Relations. (2014, March 4). Infrastructure. Retrieved from www.cfr.org: http://www.cfr.org/infrastructure/infrastructure/p26178 Lenzner, R. (2011, October 23). A $1.2 Trillion Infrastructure Plan Creates 27 Million Jobs In 5 Years. Retrieved from www.forbes.com: http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertlenzner/2011/10/23/the-u-s-wont-be-able-to-grow-again-until-2016-18/ Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman: Too Little Stimulus in Stimulus Plan. (2009, February 19). Retrieved from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/nobel-laureate-paul-krugman-too-little-stimulus-in-stimulus-plan/ Runningen, R. (2013, November 9). Obama Urges Infrastructure Spending to Spur U.S. Economy. Retrieved from www.bloomberg.com: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-09/obama-urges-infrastructure-spending-to-spur-u-s-economy.html Spending on transport infrastructure: Latest Data Released. (2013, July 11). Retrieved from www.internationaltransportforum.org: http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/Press/PDFs/2013-07-11Spending.pdf

Comparing the French Lieutenants Woman and Jewel in the Crown Essay

Similarities between French Lieutenant's Woman and Jewel in the Crown      Ã‚  Ã‚   John Fowles's French Lieutenant's Woman and Paul Scott's Jewel in the Crown are two literary works that illustrate continuity in British literature over time.   While French Lieutenant's Woman [is set in]...the Victorian era and Jewel in the Crown [depicts events in]... the twentieth century . . ., the two exhibit similar thematic content.   Both works emphasize the importance of social stature, both portray society's view of what's acceptable in the intimate relationships of women, and both are stories in which two lovers are together regardless of whether or not society approves.    The portrayal of social statures in French Lieutenant's Woman is rather simple.   Other than Sarah Woodruff, the characters are of the wealthy upper class.   Sarah is described as a "poor but educated woman who has lost her reputation."   Other characters include Charles Smithson, a wealthy gentleman who becomes Sarah's lover; Ernistina Freeman, Charles' fiance and daughter of a wealthy businessman; Mr. Freeman, Ernestina's father, a successful businessman who aspires to the upper class by marrying his daughter into [a higher class]...; and Ms. Poultney, a wealthy widow who takes in Sarah Woodruff to belittle and humiliate.    Social statures portrayed in Jewel in the Crown are more complicated; race also plays into the social status of its characters.   The main character of the story is Daphne Manners, who starts off as upper class but is later demoted to "that Manners girl" due to an inter-racial relationship with Hari Kumar.   Hari is born in India, but grew up well to do in England.   Upon his return to India he has lost his social status.   he aspires to the ... ...disapprove and criticize her.   It was a sad reality that white hostility for mixed relationships could devalue the life of an innocent child.    Jewel in the Crown and French Lieutenant's Woman illustrate in full, continuity in British literature.   While French Lieutenant's Woman represents the 1860s and Jewel in the Crown represents the 1940s, the two literary works remain very similar in plot and theme.   They also illustrate that the values of the British in regards to intimate relationships and social boundaries remained unchanged for over eighty years.    Works Cited    Damrosch, David, et al., ed.   The Longman Anthology of British Literature.   Vol. B. Compact ed.   New York:   Longman - Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. Scott, Paul.   The Jewel in the Crown.   (1966.)   Vol. 1 of the Raj Quartet.   Rpt. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998.