Water for Human Development - 1459 Words

Water is an essential commodity for human development. Unfortunately, many communities experience the lack of quality water resources. The aim of this paper is to describe and consider the most common water supply challenges facing many communities and their consequences for firefighting. The paper presents some demonstrations of the primary water supply difficulties leveraging communities. The consequences of these water supply difficulties on firefighting capabilities are suggested in this paper. Recommendations to improve community water supply and firefighting methods are provided. Water is an essential commodity for human development. Unfortunately, many communities experience the lack of quality water resources. Changes in community dynamics and the financial and communal adversities facing communities impede the development of creative water supply designs. Water vulnerabilities have really become an attribute characteristic of many communities, with far-reaching significances for their firefighting capabilities. Needless to state, in communities that need get access to water, even the smallest fire can lead to a grave catastrophe. As of today, the need of hydrants, unsuitable firefighting apparatus, troubles with dip sites, and the need of collaboration with the water utility management make communities exceedingly susceptible to the hazards of fire. In the absence of productive water supply systems, no community is absolutely defended from firefightingShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Water On Human Development1772 Words   |  8 PagesWater is an essen tial element of life. It is essential for the health of people, well-being of the human and all social and economic activities as well as for the ecosystem functions of the earth (WWAP, 2012). Therefore, managing water need a spectrum of critical considerations from the control of the governments towards the centre of the society. Water is a source of energy in some countries, and also essential element of agriculture as well as industry, and I some countries it is a mode of transportRead MoreWater Is A Vital Resource For Human Development1019 Words   |  5 PagesWater is a vital resource for human development; its natural mode of occurrence is governed by climatic, geomorphic and geologic characteristics of the land surface. Water resources is a major requirement and driver of socio-economic development. Economic sectors that water caters to include domestic, agriculture and fisheries, industry, recreation, municipality, including waste/effluent disposal, and water transportation. It also plays a prominent role in power and energy generation (Oyebande.,Read MoreWater And Its Effects On Human Activities1358 Words   |  6 PagesPerhaps water is one of the most important elements for both evolution purposes and sustenance of life on earth. On the other hand, water sustains environment and gives support to t he livelihood. It is good to note that availability of fresh water plays a big role in improving the quality of human life and overall progress of mankind in various spheres of life that are significantly dependent on it. In addition, water promotes equality between nations and also between the rich and poor within theRead MoreHuman Dependence On The Tar Sands1580 Words   |  7 PagesHuman dependence on the tar sands will be monumental in the future with the end of conventional oil. The tar sands project in Alberta is currently one of the greatest industrial projects throughout human history. 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Based on LCA gradually promote the use of the Environment Product Declaration (EPD), this declaration will serve as a businessRead MoreHow The Atmosphere Is A Complex Fluid System Outside Earth1693 Words   |  7 Pages 1 The atmosphere is a complex fluid system outside Earth from a variety of gases and suspended solids consisting of participation in life activities are under long-term development and formation. The main components of the Earth s atmosphere is nitrogen and oxygen, the nine planets in the solar system composition is very special. Composition of the global atmosphere more of the ingredients can be divided into stable and unstable constituent components. The former include nitrogen, oxygenRead MoreThe United States Geological Survey on Sinkholes998 Words   |  4 Pagesnatural external surface drainage--when it rains, all of the water stays inside the sinkhole and typically drains into the subsurface. Sinkholes vary in size considerably: from a few feet in diameter and one foot of depth, to hundreds of acres wide and more than 100 feet deep, (USGS, n.d.). Some sinkholes form naturally over time, but human intervention such as construction and development projects have been causing the rapid development of sinkholes in the state of Florida. These large-scale projectsRead MoreEssay on History of Disparity in Development650 Words   |  3 PagesHistory of Disparity in Developmen t Human is one of few creatures of mother earth that can think and decide what is right or wrong. Due to that special characteristic, people are always curious about something and try to find the reason about it. In 1974, Jared Diamond was staying in Papua New Guinea, and one day, a local named Yali asked Diamond a deceptively simple question â€Å"Why is it that you white people developed so much cargo, but we black people had little cargo of our own?† (NGO, 2005)Read MoreDrinking Water : Human Right Or Commodity? Essay1683 Words   |  7 PagesDrinking Water: Human Right or Commodity? Water, like food, is a necessity for human life that is used for many purposes such as agricultural, industrial, and domestic systems. While water is a common element around the world not all of it is clean and able to be consumed or used by humans. With only a percentage of the world’s water being clean and the use of water increasing, the availability of water around the world has become a common issue in the developing and even the developed world. ThisRead MoreHow The Building Is The Largest Stage That Impacts Environment During The Life Cycle1585 Words   |  7 Pagescan full evaluate the impacts during extraction of raw materials, material creation, sale, maintenance, disposal or recycling, also global warming, air pollution, water pollution and other index. Thereby more effectively improving environmental performance is to achieve green building. LCA will provide the support of data on saving water, energy, material and other indicators. Based on LCA gradually promote the use of the Environment Product Declaration (EPD), this declaration will serve as a business

The Social Labeling Theory - 600 Words

Crime Theory The Social Labeling Theory The social labeling theory infers that descriptive classifications may at times define an individuals behavior or self-identity. The theory closely relates to stereotyping or self-fulfilling prophecies. The theory of social labeling explains why defiant individuals engage in activities that go against cultural or societal norms (Crossman, 2014). Though popular in the early 1970s, theorists have redefined the theory trying to avail assertions that conform to the present social formations. The labeling theory relies on unwanted descriptors including defiance, mental disorder diagnosis, or disability while trying to explain non-conformance to prevalent stipulations or societal requirements. Stigma is an example of a social label that redefines an individuals identity and concept in society. The Theory of Reintegrative Shaming The reintegrative shaming theory remains common practice in the numerous criminal justice systems around the world. Through the reintegrative theory, the justice system sought to create a long-lasting bond between offenders and the society. John Braithwaite designed and formulated the reintegrative shaming theory seeking to avail a feasible alternative to the social labeling theory (Zhang, 2004). In his theory, John indicated two types of reintegrative processes that include a reintegrative and stigmatic shaming. While the stigmatic shaming intends to disintegrate the social tie between the offender and community,Show MoreRelatedLabeling Theory Or Social Reaction Theory Essay915 Words   |  4 PagesChapter 7 contains a discussion of the labeling process. Describe that process. Schmalleger describes the labeling theory or social reaction theory as one that sees persistent criminal behavior as a result of not, having the chances for normal conduct that follow the negative responses of society to those that have been labeled as criminals. There is an expectation of a continuous increase in crime that is a direct effect of the label that is attached. The result of negative labels creates limitedRead MoreLearning Theory, Social Exchange And Labeling Theory1433 Words   |  6 Pagesinteraction of the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Theory groupings of the micro level focus on the individual, psychological and developmental. Examples would be psychodynamic theories, cognitive and learning theories. The mezzo level interacts between individual’s groupings and organizations. Creates change in task groups, teams and service delivery networks. Examples would include social learning theory, social exchange and labeling theory. Lastly, you have the macro level that focus of explainingRead MoreLabeling And Conflict Theory On Social Issues843 Words   |  4 Pages The labeling theory is basically about folks who committed deviant behavior; as a result, the individual is to be labeled based on the merit of the offense. 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It1000 Words   |  4 PagesLabeling theory is closely related to social-construction and symbolic-interaction analysis. It means that deviance is not a natural tendency of an individual, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. The theory is based off how people tend to own up to what society claims them to be. The theory came about during the 1960s and 1970s. A lot of the theory’s symptoms are still noticeable today. Labeling theoryRead MoreTaking a Look at the Labeling Theory909 Words   |  4 Pages The labeling theory is one of the critical perspective sociological theories of crime. Labeling theory was the first of the critical perspectives and like the other critical perspectives, it considers defining crime, as well as applying a label to those who commit what is defined as a crime to be problematic. Among the issues addressed by labeling theory are defining deviance based on primary deviance through implementing a label on the offender, discrimination by formal institutions, as well asRead MoreThe Sociological Perspective On Medical Conditions1687 Words   |  7 Pagesexplain medical conditions. The sociological perspective focuses on the external influences, rather than then internal influences, such as the social environment, institutions, and relationships to assess and explain illness. The sociological perspective contains the following theories to support its assessment of illness a nd they are: stigma, labeling theory, and medicalization. These three concepts play a large role in the sociological perspective. According to Freund, stigma is a discrediting label

Savage Inequalities By Jonathan Kozol Free Essays

string(121) " in the well off schools, the students are given such wonderful and good options and opportunities to make their career\." The following paper presents a book review. The book which has to be reviewed is â€Å"Savage Inequalities† by â€Å"Jonathan Kozol†. The book covers the research of the author on the school or disable and privileged children. We will write a custom essay sample on Savage Inequalities By Jonathan Kozol or any similar topic only for you Order Now He also shows a comparison between the schools in urban and suburban areas. Furthermore in the book, he tells that how the education is effected due to unavailability of books to the children in the schools of the poor neighboring areas. By reading this book, people can easily conclude the conditions of the city schools with the uptown ones. The comparison presented in the book is based on the difference of quality of education being given, the races that are involved are analyzed, the facilities being provided to the children there and the situations under which these children are getting education. Adding further to this, he also suggests that suburban schools value the money better, as they provide the children with a better and secure future. Children can flourish more in the suburban school setting as it is providing them with better and good opportunities ahead. He thinks that all the children in the schools should be treated equally and should be provided with an equal amount of money, so that one is not superior to the other. If a child studying in the school belongs to a poor background, he should have been given equal money so that he can coup up with the other students who are better than him. Theme of the book: In Savage Inequalities, Jonathan Kozol tells about his analysis, that he did by investigation the environment of a number of schools in America. His main focus was the public schools. The book explains his visits to approximately 30 schools, between the year of 1988 and 1990. These schools were basically ranged from the poorest inner city schools to the ones in the wealthier sub urban communities. He found a huge gap between the conditions of the communities and the schools. His main focus throughout the book was on the question that â€Å"How is there such an enormous difference inside a country with all these public schools who claim to provide everyone with equal opportunities? In this survey, Jonathan observed the fact that how the underprivileged schools are not given equal attention, where the education standard is low and poorer as compared to the one that is being followed in the wealthier localities. The poorer schools are not given money to upgrade their current status and can come up to the mark. Even though it is necessary for all the children to go to a school until the age of 16, they are still kept back sue to all the differences in the school in which they draw lines and separate them on the basis of race as well as the social class. He studies the financial support given to the schools as how unequal that is when it comes to relate the public class divisions. He also examines institutional and biological racial discrimination, segregation, unfriendliness of students, employees that are in underprivileged schools, substantial decomposing away of constructions and even the physical condition of the apprentices (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). Overview of â€Å"Savage Inequalities†: Jonathan Kozol’s main focus in the entire book is to explore the urban school districts, which are separated by the racial difference and category of the students which includes their class. The black or nonwhites are considered to be very poor, which discriminates them harshly with ones who are rich and belong to a wealthier class of suburban schools. He observes that even if a school is not creating diversions, the divisions occur within the school that has a vast population of students. This division is mainly caused by the type of education being given and the career tracking which the students follow. This division is also created by the people by just thinking about there status and considering them superior in class. One of the reasons for these differences could be â€Å"its all in the head† motto. The most important tribulations that have an effect on these institutions are an entrepreneurial structure that involves the imitation of the partition of work. Schools afford the education to congregate this obligation all the way through the trails of apprentices into the characters that they will accomplish in their financial configuration. The author further explains and points out that the upper class of white people want their children to be properly educated, and get into better jobs and places. They want to see a bright future for them and work in a comfortable environment in less polluted areas. These people have an upper hand and will benefit from the dissection of labor and will even use their resources to create an influence with the government, in order to maintain their proper places on the positions they are working. In his book, he also discusses a few casual conversations with the students of the schools. For example, he talked about financial support unfairness amongst institutional regions with a group of wealthy students in Rye, New York, in that group, one student posed her beliefs by saying that she doesn’t exactly have any interest in these funding supports for the poorer schools, since she was unable to see that how would it benefit her (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). She really didn’t care about the situation of the schools that are under privileged. She knew the fact that how all those class and status divisions would favor her in different aspects. Then why would she bother looking the other way? Using various variety of details and scenarios to describe the conditions of the most prosperous school such as â€Å"New Trier High School and on the other hand the most underprivileged school such as â€Å"Du Sable High School†. In this comparison he portrays the most terrible environments in which the students attend their daily school and also tells that in the well off schools, the students are given such wonderful and good options and opportunities to make their career. You read "Savage Inequalities By Jonathan Kozol" in category "Papers" He distinguishes the underprivileged and affluent institutes to demonstrate the readers the worst conditions that are available. Kozol also talks about a very crucial and one of the major issue and that is of racism. He brings the fact to knowledge that mostly the poor or black children usually the Hispanic are bad savings. No matter how good they are or how good they could be. Meager educative surroundings effect in substandard learning and serious educational shortage in learners. It turns out to be very noticeable the system the management, the civilization, and the instructive system do not pass unfortunate offspring in the United States (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). Kozol vividly illustrates the deplorable conditions of the poorest schools. In distinction, he gives some colorful images of the richest suburban schools that surround them. He effectively demonstrates the racist conditions and social class discrimination that lead to the variations within the public school system as well as discusses the funding formula for America’s public schools. Kozol provides descriptions of the worst of the worst, but his research only extends to a limited number of urban schools (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). Perhaps Kozol could also include more on his views as to what the â€Å"minimal† requirements for a good school should be. What are the basic needs of a public school? He says that there should be more poor schools that resemble the better schools. Talking of the wealthy schools and the schooling they are providing, is that the minimum standard that they should provide? Or should the wealthy schools give a bit less so that the poorer schools can come up to their standard? Are all the public schools on the same level, as in providing equal opportunities to all the students? As a result, if the parents ask for more than the amount of quality education being provided in the public schools, they either demand for more, or mostly go for tuitions or private education for their offspring. The possible solution for lack of quality in urban schools according to Kozok is equalized funding. The schools will not be solved by funding alone. For real improvement to occur changes in the greater society will have to take place. After all equals schools are not determined by equal funding. Would equal funding really be desired by policy makers? If public education was really valued by the politician and if they really believed in providing equal funding for all, a lot of money would â€Å"become available. † Jonathan Kozol in his book Savage Inequalities takes into consideration the condition of several American Public Schools. He visited schools in the neighborhood and discovered wide disparity in the conditions between the schools in the poorest inner-city communities and schools in the wealthier suburban communities. How can such huge difference be possible in the public schools systems of the country that claims to provide equal opportunity for everyone? Kozol finds it obvious that many of the children from the poor communities get education which is far inferior to that of children who are growing up in the wealthier communities. Strong evidence is provided by the book of the national oppression, endemic in the American system. Kozol focuses on the discrepancy in resources amongst predominantly Black or Latino (usually inner city) schools and those that are predominantly white (usually suburban), Case studies and statistics are used to compare the opportunities given to some kids to succeed while others (oppressed nations) are set up to fail (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). The topic of the conditions that are faced by children should pose an easy win for Communist looking to explain to people the need for equality for all. It’s hard to believe someone thinking that a kid, born into circumstances out of his or her control, deserves suffer poor housing, inadequate healthcare, and substandard education. While people argue that adults â€Å"bring it on them†, the children clearly have no control over where they are born. But Kozol highlights, with astonishment, that he found racist arguments being made by white adults about the potential of Black and Latino kids to justify the better funding of the schools in the white neighborhoods. Kozol brings to mind how during the social movement people would have been vilified by such arguments, but in the early 1990s when he wrote the book, these attitudes were commonplace. Not just the adults but the kids in these wealthier schools had excuses explaining why they deserved better schools than kids who sometimes lived miles away. The statistics presented in Kozol’s book are startling; bring to attention how classes in one school are segregated racially. In one classroom there are all white students with the exception of maybe one or two Asian or Black children. In another class, which is the â€Å"special† class, all black children are present, with maybe one white child. According to the author, the children are separated more from each other in magnet schools. The poorer Pilcher 3 children do not get the opportunity to apply for these selective schools. Even if the parents are informed, on many occasion they do not have proper education to be able to fulfill the necessary requirement to admit their children to the special schools. He strongly disagrees with the business approach to education, stating that limits cannot be put on a child for the child will never strive to go beyond that limit. He maintains that this approach will not introduce Excellency but will in fact just repeat unevenness (Jonathan Kozol, 1992). Recommendations: After reading this book my perception has completely changed, I had never known that a large number of schools were situated in the ghettos and are overcrowded or only had two toilets working share by 1000 students, and also no toilet paper is available. The thing that has really upset me is the fact that schools in the same city limit but in the suburbs have an average of 20 children per classroom and also have enough supplies and computers enough so that no child needs to share. It is clear that the majority of these suburban schools are dominantly white and the minorities are in the urban schools. The dropout rates in the book are very high. Most children drop out of secondary school and do not get proper education due to lack of supplies and very little or interest of the teacher. The greater part in the poor schools are that of the Hispanic or black while the elite white class children and the rare Asian children are in the gifted classes of the sub urban schools. The small population of blacks and Hispanics that attend the same schools go to the â€Å"special† classrooms and their â€Å"mental retardations† is shown as a reason for their placement. A majority of these students belong with the whites and Asians, they are not mental. It seems like the teachers were so unmotivated to teach in the urban schools that it reflected off of the children, the children become unmotivated towards learning which has become the reason for such high dropout rates in secondary schools. These children never get real education; instead they receive partial discrimination due to the color of their skin. Access to private schools is denied to them, they do not get toilet paper or working toilets, and they are subdued, so they are not able to expand their horizons and are made to learn without the use of materials or supplies. They are never given a chance to attain proper education and so they suffer the consequences by living in poverty and having their children attend schools similar to their parents. This is all very upsetting to me as even though the school systems have improved a great deal there is nothing that can be done for the poor parents who were not able to get real education due to their color and class. I hope these parents realize that what they suffered from should not affect their children. Today this issue has been subdued only because the number of schools situated in ghettos also educates the whites along with the minorities. I myself attended a high school situated in the ghetto in Bradenton, Florida. I did not actually live in a ghetto nor did any of my friends. My opinion about Savage Inequalities would be that the book presents a good over view about the conditions of the schools in the urban and suburban areas. The way it compares the situation in the schools is very innovative. But at a point I find the book very disturbing and heart touching, on the other hand this book became an eye opener and now I can look back and think what were the situations before and how they are now. It is very good to see the things change with the passage of time. The schools have realized the fact that the race and class doesn’t matter, it’s the talent that a student carries. Although the schools maybe dominating with the majority of whites and the minority of others, the students are still receiving quality education, without comparing one race to another, they are able to realize the fact that it’s not the race which helps a person to succeed from one another. The single inconsistency that I observe in the book was that Kozol failed to notice a few matters. He didn’t address to the fact that no matter if the poor are in minority, they still have the right for proper education and learn the things that the rich are learning. He also did not defend the fact that it’s not the poor who are responsible for lack of quality education for the poor children, whether they be in minority or majority. Overall it was a good book, worth reading and spending time on it. It had covered some really interesting facts that I enjoyed reading. On a finishing note, what I consider is that the importance of these savage discrimination, productively arrange offspring into victors and defeats; those institutions persuaded the children that they ought to have in some sagacity to be unsuccessful in their schooling. How to cite Savage Inequalities By Jonathan Kozol, Papers

Language and Society

Question: Discuss about the Language and Society. Answer: The aim of the following paper is to make a fruitful analysis and discussion regarding the summary made by Rajend Mesthrie on the theoretical standpoint of Pierre Bourdieu on the theory of power. The main concentration of the paper would be on the point of view shown by theory of language and power by Pierre Bourdieu according to Rajend Mesthrie. However, prior to make in-depth evaluation of Mesthries summary on theory of language and power, the paper would understand and define some key phrases regarding the considered theory of Pierre Bourdieu. At the same time, significant concepts like symbolic power, symbolic domination and habitus would be also taken into consideration. It has been identified that according to Pierre Bourdieu, the economics of linguistic exchange is related with the term of linguistic capital. Linguistic capital is considered as a subtype of the concept of cultural capital, which has a broader grandeur. Therefore, the economics of linguistic exchange is understandably the exchange of the linguistic capital in the linguistic marketplace (Mesthrie, 2009). As per Bourdieus point of view, linguistic capital means different languages as well as varied symbolic values of those individual languages. In terms of economics of linguistic exchange, it needs to be said that standard languages possess relatively more value for having overt prestige in the linguistic market (Mesthrie, 2009). On the other hand, similarly like the standard languages, in the linguistic market, vernaculars also enjoy a same value of prestige. However, coming to the point of Mesthries summary on Bourdieus concept of symbolic power and sociolinguistic, it is to say ini tially that Mesthrie has found out that Bourdieu has researched beyond the apparent discourse analysis in order to address varied concerns regarding modern sociolinguistics (Mesthrie, 2015). Further, as per Mesthrie, Bourdieus view is primarily regarding politics, education, socio-culture and language. However, the interesting fact regarding his view on politics, socio-cultural aspect, education and language play a significant role in offering a potential base for establishing a unified theory of sociolinguistics (Durian, 2011). According to Mesthrie, from Bourdieus point of view linguistic interaction possesses the significant traces of social structure and helps them to be expressed as well as to reproduce. Most interestingly, Mesthrie has highlighted the one of the most significant fact discussed by Bourdieu, which is indicates that the sociolinguistic competence surpasses mere formulations and articulations of competence that is grammar and competence based. Mesthrie has pointed out that as per Bourdieus opinion highly argues the fact that the act of speaking corresponds the performance of passing sentence. As per Mesthries view Bourdies conceptualization is indicati ve of the fact that the effectiveness of the aforementioned performative pronunciation is not directly can be identified within language. According to Bourdie, these performative utterences are more related to and derive from a premise that provides proper meaning to individual pronunciations (Harke et al., 2016). However, it has been identified from Mesthries summary that according to Bourdieus point of view, human individuals are eligible for four kinds of resources, which are economic, cultural, social and symbolic capital (Benson, 2016). On the other hand, it has been also understood from Bourdieus perception that the distribution of human individuals is determined by the amount of capital or resource they possess, the particular composition of the resources or the capitals and their individual flight in the social atmosphere (Jenkins, 2014). Most significantly, Mesthrie has pointed out that the Bourdieus thinking is related with two chief aspects, which are communicative economy and the power of symbol. As per Mesthries understanding, Bourdie regarding his theoretical standpoint of linguistic power had invested all his interest in identifying the elements of linguistic exchange and the amount and type of capital accumulated by the linguistic investment (Mesthrie, 2015). In this context, it is required to mention that the fundamental concept of the symbolic power was first underpinned by Pierre Bourdieu. According to the conceptual view, symbolic power is indicative of the discipline that is utilized against other in order to confirm an individuals particular position in the society. In this respect, it should be accounted also that the Bourdieus conceptualization regarding sociological work is concentrated with two predominant aspects significance of body and the social practices (Wacquant, 2013). It is interesting to denote that in Mesthries summary and account on Bourdieus theory of power, there is the mention of the aforementioned theoretical assumption of Bourdieu. Mesthries point of view on Bourdies theory also has highlighted that Bourdieus theoretical underpinning has been indicative of the fact that particular social relation between the speakers determine individual linguistic interaction. It has been understood well that power is not alwa ys exercised in form of a physical force as most of the time power is transformed into symbolic attire and thereafter it is practiced with the help of symbolic exchanges (Swartz, 2013). The central or most significant part of the social power and its practice is considered by Bourdieu to be the control of symbolic market place. In this respect, one particular term should be evaluated, which is the symbolic domination. The distinct phrase is indicative of a particular procedure through which the ruling or the dominant class impose the norms on the linguistic market integrated by education and high society. It has been understood that according to Bourdieu, the particular power of the dominant class being the chief legitimate competence is considered to be the symbolic domination (Yuval-Davis, 2016). On the other hand, the dominance is considered to be the linguistic power and most significantly the procedure of learning how to make appropriate expression, which would have impressive value in the linguistic market. However, in this forefront, the Bourdieus final conceptualization regarding Habitus should be granted. It has been understood from Bourdieus interpretation that habitus plays the role of a medium between the material condition that is objective and the subjective dimensions of class that is uniformed by social lifestyle as well as class (Gulledge et al., 2014). It is needed to mention here that habitus is an individual procedure that transform the deposition of society into well structured propensities and lasting dispositions. In this respect, it should be considered also that habitus should not be considered as a result made of free will as per the reason that it is not created by structures (Gulledge et al., 2014). It is required to denote here that as per Bourdieus concept, habitus is an interplay that performs between the dispositions and the shape. Here, shape is indicative of the condition that determines the current practice as well as structure. On the other hand, another va riable disposition means the tendency that is formed by past and present consequences. Mesthries final opinion regarding the Bourdieus theory is a worth admit table fact that for having an understanding regarding macro and micro linguistic variation, situation and values, the theoretical underpinning of Bourdieu is highly required (Mesthrie, 2009). Henceforth, from the above discussion and analysis, it has been understood that Bourdieus main concern has been to indicate that symbolic power is the aspect through which exhibition of meaning is constructed. Most significantly, the above discussion has pointed out that every individual in the society is eligible for economic, cultural, social and symbolic capitals. Finally, it is to conclude with the main understanding deduced from the discourse that linguistic capital through which symbolic dominance is established is different languages as well as varied symbolic values of those individual languages. References Benson, R. (2016). Bourdieu, Pierre.The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy. Durian, D. (2011). Rajend Mesthrie, Joan Swann, Ana Deumert, William Leap. Introducing sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009. Pp. xxvi, 500. Pb. $34.95.Language in Society,40(03), 373-377. Gulledge, E. A., Roscoe, P. J., Townley, B. (2014). Acquiring an economic habitus: the role of calculation in learning the rules of the game'. Harker, R., Mahar, C., Wilkes, C. (Eds.). (2016).An introduction to the work of Pierre Bourdieu: The practice of theory. Springer. Jenkins, R. (2014).Pierre bourdieu. Routledge. Mesthrie, R. (2009).Introducing sociolinguistics. Edinburgh University Press. Mesthrie, R. (2015). Towards a distributed sociolinguistics of postcolonial multilingual societies.Globalising sociolinguistics: Challenging and expanding theory, 80. Swartz, D. L. (2013).Symbolic power, politics, and intellectuals: The political sociology of Pierre Bourdieu. University of Chicago Press. Wacquant, L. (2013). Symbolic power and group-making: On Pierre Bourdieus reframing of class.Journal of Classical Sociology,13(2), 274-291. Yuval-Davis, N. (2016). Power, intersectionality and the politics of belonging. InThe Palgrave Handbook of Gender and Development(pp. 367-381). Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Effects of Mmorpg on Students Essay Example

Effects of Mmorpg on Students Essay 2006 By Neils L. Clark Thesis Committee: Ruth Duran Huard, Chairperson Dan Wedemeyer Jonathan Lillie Pete Britos Aknowledgements Harry Partika and Meryl Martin, without whom there would be no data, and Aaron Delwiche, without whom there would be no aspiration. ii Abstract This work begins by providing a comprehensive review of videogame-related literature in fields as diverse as communications, psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; this reading suggested that behaviors noted as detrimental in psychology and neuroscience were being observed in studies of Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) gamers. The current research provides data which suggests that a player’s perceived use of varied structural characteristics within a game is related to differing addiction and engagement levels. In particular, the constructs of negative valence, side activities, and interaction with real life friends within MMO games had distinct relationships with each addiction and engagement levels. When structural characteristics were controlled for, PvP advancement and guild preference appeared to be significant predictors of addiction or engagement. While the primary aim was to offer preliminary data comparing structural characteristics and addiction, this work also discusses the benefits and limitations of sampling respondents within MMO game worlds. iii We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Mmorpg on Students specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer nbsp; Researchers in fields as diverse as psychology, neurobiology, and communication are all trying to answer this question. So far, all we can assume is that some people play too much, in a pattern that is very similar to many behavioral addictions recognized today. If addiction is operant among gamers, does this then suggest that other media forms might be probed for addictive qualities? Very few scholars have actually investigated addiction to games, however many directions for research can be inferred by comparing studies of games against addiction research. Addiction work in psychology and neuroscience provides criteria on addiction, even as it applies to Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) game players (Brown, 1997, Depue Collins, 1999, Charlton Danforth, 2004). Meanwhile Wood, Griffiths, Chappell and Davies (2004) have examined the â€Å"structural characteristics† of single player games, looking particularly at which of these elements were most important to videogame players. Researchers in more humanities-centered approaches, specifically communications, have isolated the major motivations driving players of MMO games (Yee, 2006). These motivations are connected to what may be called structural characteristics of MMO games; in other words, gamers may be motivated to play specific parts of a game. The varied literature does seem to suggest that comparing addiction fundamentals in psychology and neuroscience against studies of game player populations and/or structural characteristics will show certain viii connections. The hope is that by taking a preliminary look at game structures in relation to addiction criteria, it may become clear whether or not game structures have any relationship to addicted players. MMO games are massive graphical game worlds, wherein thousands of players continuously interact with one another in real-time. Gamers slay dragons, attract followers, and gather resources in worlds with complex politics, economies, and physics. MMO games attract millions of players worldwide. Although MMOs are a very new type of game, they already garner billions of dollars for the gaming industry. At least 28 new MMOs are scheduled for release in the next two years (Woodcock, 2005). Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft is currently the most popular, boasting over 6 million subscribers worldwide (Jenkins, 2006). While Warcraft commands a huge market share compared to other MMOs, there is an increasingly steep incline in growth of total active players (Woodcock, 2005). Some people play MMO games for 40, 60, even near 90 hours straight, and then die (Kim, 2006). Still, these may be anecdotal cases. It is speculated that most people can use computers for long periods of time without ill effect, while only a small few cannot remain â€Å"healthy† while doing so (Charlton, 2002). Nonetheless, if games appeal to a broad demographic (Yee, 2005, Griffiths, 2003), then this problem has the potential to affect an expansive demographic. Understanding the potential for addiction in games requires that researchers use better materials and sampling methodologies. Defining populations as â€Å"addicted† is problematic, as most studies fail to describe even their basic criteria. The current work attempts to describe criteria on some key studies in Internet and computer addiction, as they form the ix foundation underlying many studies of video game addiction. A previously tested and used definition of MMO addiction is then selected (Charlton Danforth, 2004). In the theory used, players begin with stages of â€Å"high engagement;† they enjoy play yet experience only lower order negative effects associated with these games: cognitive salience, euphoria, and heightened tolerance. At a point, some gamers enter a stage of â€Å"addiction†, experiencing more severe negative effects: behavioral salience, intra and interpersonal conflict, withdrawal, and relapse/reinstatement. That play degrades in this manner among certain players seems clear (Brown, 1997; Charlton, 2002). Less clear is what factors may prompt the move from enjoyable â€Å"engagement† to deleterious â€Å"addiction†. To this end, Wood and Griffiths et. al (2004) have suggested the importance of the structural characteristics of videogames. While their work does not explore MMO addiction, the notion of a game having inherent structures, even to the degree that different MMOs games may share certain structural traits, is central to this work. Structural characteristics in this paper are, then, meant to measure the perceived amounts of time spent at, frequency of interactions with, and perceived importance a game player puts on interaction with major generalizeable structures of the game world. For instance, whether they prefer adventuring with people they have met online, how much they value a certain type of player organization (guild), if they like to manipulate other players, or whether they want to sew pretty dresses. Within the literature, a number of structural characteristics are readily apparent, these being amount of time spent at different in-game activities (Wood, Griffiths, et. al, 2004), guild characteristics (Seay, Jerome et al. , 2004; Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003), performance of socially unacceptable behaviors (Yee, 2006), level of interaction with real life friends versus online friends (Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003), level of immersion (Yee, 2006), and level of individualism (Yee, 2006). Again, at present no study has examined the relationship, if any, between addiction and the structural characteristics inherent to videogames. A number of oversights highlight the need for interdisciplinary research. Gameplay types and motivations that have been cited in psy chological literature as destructively addictive are currently being observed in actual gaming populations within the fields of computer science, informatics, and communications. For example Nicholas Yee, studying MMO player behavior within the field of Communications, had determined â€Å"escapism† and â€Å"manipulation† (i. e. of other players) to be two major reasons to play (Yee, 2006). Meanwhile, in the field of psychology, at least one measure of Charlton’s addiction scale deals with gaming as an â€Å"escape from socialization† (Charlton, 2002). Additionally â€Å"negative valence†, or use of videogames to undergo nonsocially acceptable behavior, relates strongly to addiction, and is very similar to Yee’s measure of â€Å"manipulation† (Charlton Danforth, 2004). Overlap does exist between addiction literature and reported behavior. No empirical data, however, yet explores links between addiction, and preferences towards, performance of, or frequency of performance of general structures within games. While the gaming industry itself has given some treatment to the issue of addiction (Clark, 2006), it is unclear as to whether even game developers take the notion seriously (Adams, 2002). The gaming industry is nonetheless populated with a true melange of development houses, publishers, independent contractors, and other actors. As is evidenced by the major industry publications, they place value on academic work. Gamasutra. com, for instance, lends theses, books, and other academic works valuable web real estate. Industry xi leaders attend a wide variety of conferences on games. At the most recent game developer’s conference (GDC), all manner of game creators flooded a talk given by three major academics discussing upcoming gaming research. While some game developers will certainly protest to discussions of game addiction, many more realize the necessity for understanding the intersect between videogames and addiction. By comparing Charlton and Danforth’s model of MMO addiction (2004), against structural characteristics identified in this research, it may be possible to determine which elements of play, if any, relate to addiction. If any relation exists, it would provide early data on which parts of a game relate most strongly to the preferences of addicted players. It is important to note here that a relationship between structural characteristics and addiction may suggest a number of things. A robust set of relationships between structural characteristics and addiction likely does not imply that games themselves are addictive, nor would it be able to imply that only game players with addictive personalities will have problems. An utter lack of any relationship may indicate that games themselves have no link to addiction. Nonetheless if relationships do exist, the hope would then be that the academy, the gaming industry or others will verify these results for themselves so as to understand why certain structural characteristics may be linked to harmful behaviors. xii Chapter 1: Relevant Literature The â€Å"newness† of games, relative to established media forms, makes analysis of structural elements quite recent. DFC Intelligence estimated that the top 17 video game companies collectively made 24. 5$ billion USD in 2004, (Maragos, 2005) compared to the often cited six or seven billion overall value. MMO games represent a major force in the videogame industry. In China alone, MMO business was forecasted to grow from 580$ million USD in 2005, to 1. 7$ billion in 2010 (Jenkins, 2005). A recent report by the IDC estimates South Korea’s MMO revenues at 551$ million USD in 2004 (Reuters, 2005). Each successive MMO is essentially different. For instance, Star Wars Galaxies occurs within George Lucas’ famous Star Wars Galaxy, whereas Square Enix’s Final Fantasy XI occurs within the established Final Fantasy universe. Each has their own different rules that dictate the play environment. Each are, however, very similar in certain structural characteristics, the theoretical pieces which make up the game world. That these games, and this line of inquiry is so new, studies of gaming populations could be compared to that of movie going, at a time when only a dozen or so major movies had been made. A number of authors, in conducting demographies, ethnographies, and other exploratory studies of MMO populations have examined what could be called structural characteristics (Wood, 2004; Ducheneaut, 2004; Jakobsson and Taylor, 2003; Seay, 2004; Delwiche, 2003). Building on the MMO structural characteristics pulled from their work and explained below, this study seeks to find whether videogame structural characteristics are related to concepts of addiction. 1 Figure 1. Sony Online Entertainment’s Star Wars Galaxies brings to life elements from Lucas’ proprietary world, such as Jedi and rancor beasts It is also important to note that I, as the author, am connected to these videogames in such a way that this work is necessarily ethnographic in many respects. I am part of a generation that has grown up immersed in games, MMO games becoming a part of that for me upon joining some online friends in playing Star Wars Galaxies. Most recently I have been playing World of Warcraft. While this thesis centers on quantitative data, qualitative data is inseparable from this. While the ethnographically inclined researcher will no doubt want more in the way of direct quotes and nuanced situations, this thesis does center on quantitative data. My background will primarily show itself in discussions of MMO games. These discussions are intended for the audience of academics who may otherwise have had little experience with these worlds. 2 Addiction Literature Much of the game addiction research being performed today owes its methods to the foundation laid by early work done in Internet addiction. Ivan Goldberg’s joking 1995 inception of the â€Å"Internet Addiction Support Group† is generally credited with coining the phrase â€Å"Internet Addiction Disorder† (IAD) (Charlton Danforth, 2004), and highlights the tone of the early dialogue on addiction. In the same year, a study of problematic videogame use among first year psychology students (Griffiths and Dancaster, 1995) was conducted using the DSM-III criteria for pathological gambling (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The following year, â€Å"Internet Addiction† was introduced at the 1996 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association (Young, 2004). Numerous studies followed suit. Most of these studies used no more than ten items in diagnosing what they referred to as computer and Internet addictions. At most, affirmative answers on only 50% of these items were needed to fit operational definitions of addiction (Griffiths, 1999; Griffiths Hunt, 1998; Scherer, 1997; Young, 1998). While Internet and computer addiction should be seen as entities distinct from videogame addiction, the former two are discussed as part of a genealogical progression of research. For better or for worse, a great deal of the research into videogames takes its measures and methodologies directly from these earlier works. In some ways this helped to bring the notion of videogame addiction to light, yet in thers it introduced detrimental misconceptions. While it is possible that addiction to a game may be similar to Internet or computer addictions, should either actually exist, games are distinct from computer applications and the Internet. The goal of this addiction section is to trace the literature regarding non-substance addiction, examining its roots in Brown’s model, 3 addiction’s initial applications by Young in Internet dependence/addiction, then finally to Charlton’s conceptions of engagement and addiction. Despite the serious dearth of academic information regarding the relationship between games and addiction, gamers throw the term â€Å"addiction† about quite readily. Among game players it is colloquial to regard casual play as â€Å"addiction,† regardless of whether a person’s play is healthy or not. Prominent advertisements and reviews for games use the word â€Å"addiction† synonymously with â€Å"quality. † Highlighting the pervasive use of the term as well as gamers’ perceptions of addiction, one player asked to participate in this study noted that it was their first time playing in months. Later they stated, â€Å"but I was addicted like all the rest. † Contacting another player inside the game provoked a strong negative reaction, at first. However, after the researcher apologized and left that player alone for a time, the same player began spontaneously talking about their play, to make this short I no longer work and I play this game almost all day every day for over a year now. The sustained misuse of perceptions and stereotypes on the part of marketers will likely have an increasingly devastating impact on game players that do have problems. Understanding the intersect between addiction and videogames is a necessary precursor toward first, understanding what to regard as addiction, and second, search for clues as to how we might begin to help the people whose play is having a clearly negative affect on their lives. Brown’s Hedonic Management Model of Addiction Iain Brown (1993; 1997) wrote a number of articles regarding his â€Å"hedonic management model of addiction,† a model created to apply to non-substance addiction generally. In the most basic sense, Brown argues that all people use certain activities to 4 ake themselves feel good. Some people, whether through gradual development, or the sudden discovery of a very powerful stimulus, learn to use this one stimulus to keep themselves feeling good all the time, increasingly at the cost of their long term goals. Recovery is a matter of regaining a normal repertoire of activities and realization of an improved long-term rate of reward. Brown additionally di stinguishes addiction as value-free, which means that though an activity has acquired a â€Å"motivational monopoly† (Hodge, p. 4) within an individual, it is rarely without benefit. Two obvious examples would be addiction to jogging or to computer games, possible benefits being physical health and technical knowledge, respectively. Neuroscience Without belaboring Neuroscience, it remains important to give at least a sideways glance toward the established role of dopamine in the brain, and how neurological veins of research may lend greater understanding to MMO addiction. Where Brown’s psychological studies suggested that â€Å"non-substance ingesting †¦activities† could create behaviors very similar to those found in substance-addicts (Brown, 1991), meaning that a strongly psychological concept likely underlies both substance, and non-substance addiction. Goaloriented motivation is based on two major factors, â€Å"the availability of reward, and the effort required to obtain it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Depue and Collins, 1999). Brown reflects this, in saying: â€Å"An addiction develops its maximum power and momentum through the prolonged action of several positive feedback loops. These positive feedback loops begin with a series of cognitive failures which lead to the strengthening of an acquired drive for particular feeling states as a goal associated with the performance of the addictive activity. As the acquired 5 drive strengthens, so the single activity becomes more and more salient as almost the sole source of reward. † (Brown, in Hodge, 1997, P. 29) Considering that MMO games contain nearly pervasive reward, with such rewards immensely easier to obtain relative to RL (The most common abbreviation for â€Å"real life† within a MMO game) goals and rewards, it is then not entirely nreasonable to expect many players to experience greater apathy toward RL goals, as they are not only overshadowed by much more transparent and apparently efficant goals (i. e. slaying a dragon, or crafting a weapon yet unseen on a particular server), but that in-game goals themselves take such an amount of time as to make RL goals all the more difficult to obtain. Here the â€Å"availability of reward† and â€Å"effort required to obtain it† reflect Brown’s concept of â€Å"hedonic gap†, the difference between the strength of a goal, and personal susceptibility. Depue and Collins state that individual differences in dopamine processing can predetermine certain individuals as more likely to develop addictive behaviors. In this way, hard science and Brown’s model both seem to be pieces of a larger puzzle. Internet Addiction As recently as 1996, Internet addiction was brought up as a potential disorder among mental health professionals. Criteria for â€Å"Internet Dependence† was made to be based off of the DSM-IV, the American Diagnostics and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders’ criteria for problematic gambling (American Psychological Association, 1994; Young, 1996), provided as Appendix D. As seen in Appendix E, the â€Å"Diagnostic Questionnaire† forwarded by Young used eight criteria, rather than ten, yet maintains a cutoff of five affirmative responses in order to define â€Å"dependents† as Internet-addicted. While she defends five of 6 eight as a â€Å"rigorous cutoff,† she does state that â€Å"It should be noted that while this scale provides a workable measure of Internet addiction, further study is needed to determine its construct validity and clinical utility. † (Young, 1996). More recent versions of her diagnostic questionnaire for Internet addiction are larger, and scaling. For instance currently, her website offers a 20 item questionnaire, scaling from 20-100 points. It segregates Internet use into three categories, causing: no real problems, some problems, or significant problems. Charlton (2002) has suggested that checklist-type questionnaires are likely to overestimate the number of people addicted, and has otherwise questioned her work. That she provides no real theoretical framework is troubling, especially considering that so many studies, be they for Internet, computer, or even gaming addiction, have imported her framework verbatim into their studies. Engagement and Addiction Though this conception of Internet addiction is likely to overestimate the number of individuals who require clinical help (Charlton Danforth, 2004), it was the first attempt at forging criteria for over-use. Brown’s six criteria, covered later, have been used by Mark Griffiths, another psychologist active in the field of computer, Internet, and even video game effects. But what of claims that videogame playing lends itself to learning skills which can prove beneficial in the contemporary marketplace? John Charlton makes an attempt at determining whether his concept of â€Å"high computer engagement†, merely enjoying a large amount of computing, relates to Brown’s framework of addiction. More specifically, do any of Brown’s six criteria relate to a non-pathological enjoyment, while others relate to a more deleterious addiction? 7 Brown and Charlton Though Brown does present his model in layers, meaning that certain activities are by nature more destructive, Charlton’s factor analysis allows us to see which layers are in actuality most destructive in terms of computer use (Charlton, 2002). This is especially relevant when computers act as an almost necessary gateway to jobs, communication, and regular leisure for many people. Charlton found moderately high use to relate to the less harmful of Brown’s elements, which he calls â€Å"engaging† qualities. These include tolerance, euphoria, and cognitive salience (thinking about an activity a lot). The â€Å"addictive† qualities are behavioral salience (engaging in the activity a lot), conflict (arguments within yourself and with others over the extent of your usage), withdrawal, and relapse/reinstatement. Engagement and Addiction in MMO Play Charlton’s method has been applied to Massively Multiplayer Online games, with additional factors having been found to relate to the concept of â€Å"addiction† (Charlton Danforth, 2004). The three additional factors are â€Å"negative valence† (a respondent’s indulgence in societally unvalued activities), â€Å"attractiveness† (whether a respondent perceives themselves as attractive), and â€Å"emotional stability†. The specific questions used to survey MMO gamers are provided in Appendix B, Part Two: Personality/Gaming Behavior. Player Populations and Structural Characteristics of MMO games While we may not know a great deal about addiction as it relates to these games, there has nonetheless been a great deal of work exploring these worlds. The methods of these studies may not be perfect, yet they nonetheless give strong hints as to who is playing and why. Even if many demographic variables have yet to be sampled scientifically, what 8 exists can be compared against information on addiction in order to garner information regarding these worlds. Figure 2. Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft Each MMO, for instance EverQuest or World of Warcraft, is a different game, with different mechanics. Within games there can be large differences as well, as each game will, on average run one, 20, or even 100+ servers, depending on the popularity. Blizzard’s World of Warcraft, currently the real world’s largest MMO, runs at least 108 servers, which they call â€Å"realms. † This number increases as World of Warcraft gains popularity, yet may collapse if newer games grow in favor. A server is a single copy of the game world, with its own internal mechanics; likely variations between servers are community, economy, or nationality. To be more specific, after purchasing an MMO and creating a billing account, one will have to choose which particular â€Å"server† of this game world they would like to play in. The bulk of player population studies do not explicitly explain how they treat sampling 9 with regard to servers or games, though this is not the major downfall to such studies so far. A major sampling downfall is that the bulk of studies looking at player populations have been elicited through outside websites, particularly â€Å"community websites† for particular games. Two major concerns with this are (1) the sheer volume of such popular community websites, and (2) the low likelihood that those seeking community outside the game will be representative of those playing within (especially those pathologically addicted). Structural Characteristics as a Theoretical Concept Though literature pertaining to videogames is growing rapidly, few have stopped to actually define videogames or analyze their structure (Wood, Griffiths, et al. , 2004). In a study of more traditional single-player games, Wood et al. et out to assess video game structure by way of asking which structural characteristics were most salient among game players (Wood et al. , 2004). Many of his structural characteristics were not entirely applicable to MMO play, for instance ‘duration of game’ and ‘mapping’ (creating custom levels for a single player game). Other characteristics apply to MMO games, such as interface options, use of humor, and brand assurance, ye t were omitted from this study in order to restrict its size. 10 Figure 3. Structural characteristics map the structures available for interaction within these games, and include exploring new areas. Yee’s MMO Motivations Nicholas Yee, one of the more recognizable names in the study of MMO effects, in a 3 year period surveyed over 30,000 players from the MMO games Ultima Online, EverQuest, Dark Age of Camelot, and Star Wars Galaxies. In a paper set to be published in 2006, he explores positive and negative effects of MMO playing. Qualitatively, Yee identified five factors of MMO motivation: achievement, relationship, immersion, escapism, and manipulation. It is important to differentiate motivations for play from structural characteristics, the actual structure within the game that is being manipulated. This distinction notwithstanding, the criteria used by Yee can be modified and clarified so that these motivations may be measured as if they were structural characteristics. For instance, Yee’s concept of 11 manipulation includes the questions, â€Å"I scam other people out of their money or equipment†, and, â€Å"I like to taunt or annoy other players. † His questions do not have to be changed drastically for a successful query of MMO structures. The wording of some measures taken from Yee remain unchanged. In â€Å"immersion†, for example, creating a back-story for one’s character can be entirely in the mind of the game player, or it can be an integral part of the game. Eve Online and City of Heroes are two games where players are encouraged to enter information about their character’s history, in a structure that allows other players to then read that information and/or back-story. World of Warcraft has no structure for this, but it is not uncommon to hear a player talking about their created back-story on an RP, or role-playing server. The same structure is here operating in radically different ways, sometimes even within a single game. Demographics of MMO game players What we know about gaming comes primarily from Yee’s studies, particularly his Daedalus Project. While nearly all of the information collected by Yee came by way of selfselected respondents seeking out his surveys, the many thousands of people attracted for his studies have made his data likely the most widely cited in academic work on game player demographics. In terms of employment, 50. % of respondents were shown to work full time, 22. 2% were full-time students, and 13% of female players referred to themselves as â€Å"homemaker. † Additionally, the number of female MMO players seems to increase with age, surpassing the number of males in the 23-28 age range, and in each subsequent age range (Yee, 2006). Yee argues that this data dispels the notion that all gamer players are unemployed, male, and young; rather games have a universal appeal. 12 Other findings from Yee are that 60. % of respondents had played for at least 10 contiguous hours, this effect being roughly equivalent along age groups. 15. 8% of men and 59. 8% of women play MMOs with a romantic partner, while 25. 5% of men and 39. 5% of women play with a family member, suggesting that women are primarily being introduced to MMO games by a spouse or family member. Most importantly, Yee points out, â€Å"†¦the data demonstrate that MMORPGs appeal to a very wide demographic and that this appeal is strong and elicits high time investment from users. † (Yee, 2006). Comparing the Social Networks within MMOs with those of the Mafia â€Å"†¦the mafia initially grew out of an ancient honor system where elders were entrusted to negotiate in conflicts and pass judgments that the others were obliged to adhere to. The fact that Sicily historically has been targeted by outside interests such as the Spanish and fascists has also contributed to a need for organized resistance against outside oppression. The transition into a criminal organization came later, possibly more or less because the mafia realized that they could use their powerful organization to achieve fortune for themselves. This pattern is repeated in EQ [EverQuest]. The strong emphasis on reputation in the creation of social networks grows out of a need from the players to self-govern their gaming environment in order to secure a positive experience in the presence of potential disturbances and a simultaneous absence of an effective and reliable governing system. But ultimately these networks are also used to take shortcuts through, or trick, the formal rules of the system. † (Jakobsson Taylor, 2003) Comparing EverQuest’s prominent framework for social structure, the guild, to the social structure of the mafia should seem laughable at first. The above quote however illustrates and contextualizes ways in which play style shifts strongly within MMO games, 13 favoring these social networks as players approach the highest levels of in-game achievement. Put another way, where a player’s guild, online friends, and real-life connections at early stages of play provided the support required to succeed, at the end-game they become the connections that allow a player to dominate. Figure 4. The members of both social and goal-oriented guilds will occasionally line up for group photographs. Here it begins to become apparent that Yee’s (2006) conceptions that deal with interaction (how much a person talks, shares feelings, etc. ) and perhaps also individualism, a person’s preference toward playing on their own, may need to be expanded. In the mafia, family provides a strong foundation for commitment. You stick with your family, and they stick with you. Jakobsson and Taylor are here arguing that MMO games work similarly, where people who know each other outside of the game have a much higher commitment to each other than to friends that they know strictly through the game. The idea here was then 14 to split up communication between these two types of connections; real-life friend, and strictly online friend (individuals or guildmates), and then to rework these criteria in order to better reflect levels of interaction. Individualism was expanded from Yee’s group/solo criteria in part due to this emphasis on interaction. If some players prefer playing with reallife friends, and others with online friends, then perhaps those that prefer no interaction at all differ in equally significant ways. Project Massive and Guild Communication The self-effacingly named Project Massive sampled from five MMO games in order to â€Å"investigate how players play, communicate, and organize. † Tracking players via guilds, the study reinforced what many others have said: that the social

Updated List Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores

Updated List Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’ve already taken the SAT, you know it will likely be an important component of your college applications. Maybe you've set a goal score for yourself based on the types of colleges you’re interested in. Even if you haven’t taken the SAT yet or are still considering whether to take it, you probably want to know more about what the most competitive colleges and universities expect when it comes to applicants’ standardized test scores. I’ve compiled a list of colleges with the highest average SAT scores for admitted students. You’ll be able to compare your own SAT scores (or goal scores) with those of top colleges and universities. I’ll also talk about what these rankings actually mean so that you can interpret this information effectively. For example, are these schools the best schools you can attend? Are they the most competitive? What do you do if your SAT scores are below the listed averages? Read on for a list of the top schools ranked by SAT score, and answers to the above questions! Colleges With the Highest SAT Scores: Rankings Let's get right to the good stuff: the list! The colleges below are ranked by mean (average) composite SAT score for admitted students.We've also included the mean scores for each SAT section: Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) and Math. Rank School EBRW Math Composite 1 California Institute of Technology (Caltech) 780 790 1560 2 Duke University 760 780 1540 2 Harvard University 770 770 1540 2 University of Chicago 770 780 1540 2 Yale University 770 770 1540 3 Columbia University 760 770 1530 3 Vanderbilt University 770 780 1530 4 Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering 750 770 1520 4 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 750 780 1520 4 Princeton University 760 770 1520 4 Stanford University 760 770 1520 5 Harvey Mudd College 740 780 1510 5 Johns Hopkins University 750 760 1510 5 Northwestern University 760 770 1510 5 Rice University 750 770 1510 5 University of Pennsylvania 750 760 1510 5 Washington University in St. Louis 760 770 1510 6 Amherst College 750 750 1500 6 Bowdoin College 750 750 1500 6 Brown University 750 750 1500 6 Dartmouth College 740 750 1500 6 Pomona College 740 750 1500 7 Carnegie Mellon University 740 760 1490 7 Swarthmore College 740 740 1490 7 Tufts University 740 750 1490 7 University of Notre Dame 740 750 1490 7 Webb Institute 740 770 1490 7 Williams College 750 730 1490 8 Carleton College 740 740 1480 8 Cornell University 740 760 1480 If you want more detailed information about admissions statistics (and where you happen to fit) for any of the above schools, click the link to take you to that specific school's admissions page.On this page, you can look at average SAT scores as well as estimate your chances of getting in by entering your test scores and GPA. If you want SAT score information for other schools not listed above, simply search for "[School Name] PrepScholar admissions" on Google. The list above won't mean much without a Rosetta Stone of SAT scores. How Do You Interpret These SAT Rankings? Hopefully, you nowhave an idea of the highest expectations schools can have for students' SAT scores. This information isn't that helpful, though, if you don't know how students tend to perform on the exam. The SAT iscurrently scored out of 1600 points: 800 points possible for the Math section, and 800 points possible for the EBRW section. Currently, the average composite SAT score is 1060. In general, a student is considered to have an excellent SAT score if she is in the top 25% of test takers. To fall within this category, you'd needa composite score of around 1200or higher. On the other hand, a student is considered to have a low SAT score if he is in the bottom 25% of test takers, with a composite score around 910 or lower. Read our guide to learn more about how to think about "good" or "bad" SAT scores. Are These Really the Top Schools? The average SAT scores listed for the schools above are much higher than the overall average - in fact, some of them are pretty close to perfect. Butif a school has dizzyingly high average SAT scores, does this mean it's necessarily a top school? In a sense, yes. Schools that attract the strongest applicants tend to do so because they have excellent reputations and offer strong undergraduate programs. When schools have a stronger student body - undergraduateswith very high SAT scores, for example - they tend to build up a positive reputation and get more competitive as a result. It's a positive feedback loop: strong students with strong SAT scores continue to attract strong students with strong SAT scores. Many of the schools on the list above are ranked on well-known "best colleges and universities" lists, like the one that US News World Report publishes each year. These ranking systems aren't perfect, but they do take many quantifiable factors into account (besides just standardized test scores) when evaluating US schools. You’ll notice, for example, that all of the Ivy League schools are on this list.These schools have such high average SAT scores because they are well-reputed enough to attract students with exceptionalscores. A small side note: you might have noticed a trend in the scores that made you pause. Several of the schools listed tend to have higher Math averages than EBRW averages. Quite a few of these schools are heavy in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, math);these sorts of schools may weight test scores more heavily in the application process than your average liberal arts institution, which could account in part for their high test averages. With thatsaid,it’s important to note that the best school you can attend isthe school that’s the best fit for you. Perhaps you’re interested in schools with strong Romance-language departments, core curriculums, or generous financial aid programs. The reality is, not all of the schools listed above will meet every student’s criteria. What’s most important to your success in college and beyond is that you find an institution that is able to support and foster your interests, passions, and future career path. You wouldn’t list a school renowned for its engineering program as your top choice, for instance, if you wanted to major in comparative literature! Are These Schools Really the Most Competitive? The way you gauge a school's competitivenessis by looking at its acceptance rate.The greater theratio of student applicants to spots in a new freshman class, the lower a school's acceptance rate will be. Schoolsare defined as competitive if many students are vying for a limited number of spots. In terms of acceptance rates, many of the schools above are some of the most competitive in the country. Several have acceptance rates of less than 10%.There are some equally competitive niche institutionsnot included on the list, such as Cooper Union, the US Naval Academy, the US Military Academy, and Alice Lloyd College - all of which have extremely low acceptance rates. In sum, the top schools ranked by SAT scores do tend to be competitive, but they're not the only institutions with very low acceptance rates. Just because you're lagging behind the group doesn't mean you won't have an opportunity to catch up. What If Your SAT Scores Fall Below the Listed Averages? Do You Still Have a Chance of Getting In? So what do you do if you're trying to get into a very competitive school, but your scores don't measure up? In order to be a competitive applicant,you’ll have to make up for that perceived weakness elsewhere in your application. You can do this, for example, by earning an exceptionally high GPA or making an impressive commitment to community service. Admissions officers consider students' applications holistically - meaning that they don't just focus on standardized test scores. The extent to which you have to "make up" for a low test score with other parts of your application depends on how far you fall below the school's average. At an elite school, it's unlikely you'll get in with very low SAT scores, even if the rest of your application is strong. So how do you know whether your scores fall below a dangerous threshold? Because the scores above are averages, you know that about half of all accepted students will have SAT scores lower than the ones listed. You can also access information on the â€Å"middle 50† for each school - i.e., the scores at the 25th and 75th percentiles for admitted students. This will tell you the range of scores that the middle 50% of accepted students have. You’re generally a safer applicant if you fall in this middle 50% than if you’re in the bottom 25% of students. Another factor to consider is that each school will weigh applicants’ SAT scores a bit differently in the application process. Schools like Washington University in St. Louis, for example, are well known for heavily favoring students with excellent scores. Some other schools may forgive below-average test scores if another part of your application impresses the admissions committee (refer to my examples above). There are even schools that don't require test scores at all! If you want to calculate your chances of getting into a particular school, use our admissions pages. You can find these by Googling "[School Name] PrepScholar admissions." These pages will give you more information about the school you're interested in. Finally, if it turns out that your SAT scores just aren't up to par,consider taking the ACT. All four-year US colleges and universities accept ACT scores, and some students strongly feel that they perform better on the ACT than on the SAT. What's Next? If you're considering adding some of these schools to your college application list, you'll want your SAT scores to be the best they can be. Check out our famous guide to getting a perfect 1600 on the SAT, written by an expert perfect scorer. Don't have a ton of time to prep for your SATbut still want to improve your score? Then read our top SAT tips and strategiesto help you improve your exam performance. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The difference between informative and argumentative speech Assignment

The difference between informative and argumentative speech - Assignment Example Whether argumentative or informative, all speeches have a purpose. There should be a reason why the speech is necessary and a desired outcome from the speech. Informative speeches are generally given as a form of instruction with the desired outcome to be something such as to have a more informed audience or to introduce a new idea. The fundamental goal of the informative speech is to â€Å"provide interesting, useful and unique information to your audience† (Writing @ CSU, 2010). The audience is often called together with the expectation of hearing a speech and the atmosphere is almost always relatively calm. This is not necessarily true with occasions in which an argumentative speech is called for. These speeches are given with the intent to convince the audience of a specific point of view. This type of speech may be a planned speech, a sales pitch or even an impromptu delivery at a political meeting in which the audience may or may not be calm and receptive. The desired ou tcome is to maintain or acquire supporters. The topics most often addressed by these types of speeches are another area in which the concepts might overlap but the focus is skewed. Informative speeches, for example, can be given about objects, processes, events or concepts. All of these can be covered by an argumentative speech as well. The difference is that the informative speech focuses on factual information about these things, offering ideas and proof that can be generally accepted as fact or the correct answer. Argumentative speeches often address these topics in ways that the conclusions reached are debatable – there may be more than one right answer. An example of this difference is an informative speech that instructs the audience about the specific features available on a new hybrid car against an argumentative speech about that same car that focuses on why those features are better than similar features being offered by another

International Management Group and Competitors of IMG Research Paper

International Management Group and Competitors of IMG - Research Paper Example Along with the global giant's several local industries to contribute to the growth of the sports industry worldwide. A few sports goods manufacturers of the world are like Puma, Slazenger, Stiga, Dunlop, and Yonex. The estimated size of the entire sports industry in 2010 is expected at $414 billion (Plunkett Research Ltd., â€Å"Sports Industry Overview†). The competitors of IMG are Interpublic, Clear Channel Entertainment (formerly known as SFX), William Morris Agency, Creative Artist Agency, Magnum Sports and Entertainment, Nike, WPP group, Dentsu, TBA Entertainment, Ford models and Pro Form Golf. The overall areas on which the competitor companies are mainly engaged are like athletes, models, authors, speakers, artists, actors, events, television production, consulting/ licensing, film production, money management, advertising, and academies. Clear channel and Interpublic focuses on a number of areas except for television production, money management, and academies. William Morris Agency focuses only in the areas like authors, speakers, artists, actors, and athletes. Magnum Sports focus on athletes, models, and events. Nike’s focus is only on athletes and events. WPP and Dentsu focus only on academics and licensing/consulting. TBA focuses on speakers, actors, events, television products and advertising. Ford concentrates on the athletes only. One of the competitors ProForm Golf is involved only in the area of academics. The vision of the firm, the association of a number of renowned athletes, and the goodwill of the founder may be said to be a few of the competitive advantages of the firm. In 2000, the market value of American sports was approximately $200 billion, which made it country’s 11th largest industry. IMG in turn was credited with having invented the field of sports management almost 40 years earlier. At present IMG represents a number of the most talented and exciting athletes, including golf star Tiger Woods and tennis players  like Venus and Serena Williams. Mark Hume McCormack was declared as the most powerful man in golf by Golf Magazine, Sports Illustrated labeled him as the most powerful man in sports and Tennis magazine figured him as the most powerful man in tennis.

Reflective Learning and the Reflective Practitioner Essay

Reflective Learning and the Reflective Practitioner - Essay Example My reception at the company was quite good and promising because the company expected a lot from me since I had come from one of the most developed countries; guaranteeing me the opportunity to must have come with more ideas than had been. Due to my most expected exposure, I was taken to the core section of management (operation management) to initiate and help implement strategies that would increase the amount of returns earned from the company’s products. The first challenge, and the most crucial one, was based on the mode of communication. In Kenya English is the official language, while Kiswahili is the national language. Therefore, most people largely used and were fluent in Kiswahili than they were in English. On the contrary, I could only speak English, and a little bit of the French. Other limiting factors were to do with the social and environmental challenges. In the first instances, these factors inhibited my performance to a level that I equally thought that the environment was not fit for me; reason being that it had affected my ability to showcase the benefits to the company. From this, I came to learn that excellent performance in academics does not guarantee a successful performance in the real life situations. As a solution, I had to attend classes on Kiswahili language, socialize and interact more with the local for social acceptance, and change my lifestyle for the purpose of environmental adaptation and

Links Between Investment in Infrastructure and Job Creation

Links Between Investment in Infrastructure and Job Creation Sourav Roy (13060242044) Sourav Das (13060242043) Saptarshi Maiti (13060242036) Devika Kannan (13060242013) Executive summary The effective tool to create jobs is counter-cyclical spending on infrastructure. As the demand for private sector is weak, the government helps the people with jobs and also aggregate demand. Investments of infrastructure are divided into two parts: Economic sectors include increasing efficiency in transportation, including roads, railways and waterways, Social sectors such as education, water and sewage system. Investments in a local scenario and their impact on development strategies lead to creation of more jobs, greater ownership, and can rapidly boost up the local economies. This is particularly applicable in times of crisis. Decentralized public investment should be favored where ever possible. It is very important to assess the resultant labour output of these investments with respect to its impact on direct as well as indirect and employment, not only to assess their productivity in short run, but also to assess the long run impact on growth and other subsidiary effects. There are number of infrastructure projects in low and medium-income countries which are financed fully or partially by IFI. Institutions like these should make an effort to allow for larger labour participation in infrastructure development. Fiscal decentralization can be defined as a two-dimensional policy: 1). Decentralization of tax instrument. 2). Decentralization of expenditure. The relation between decentralization and government efficiency can be divided into two large areas: a) The classical theory: There are three main contribution where this theory can be restricted, those are Tiebout’s model of local public good provision where decentralization coupled with mobile households solve the problem of the efficient provision of public goods. The second most influential contribution is of Oates’(1972) Decentralization Theorem that involves the tradeoff between centralized and decentralized provision of public goods in favour of former if average preferences across citizen of different region are equal. The theorem stresses on to maximize social welfare. And the last is Leviathan hypothesis where it shows the mechanism for constraining the expansionary tendencies of government mechanism. b) The second generation theory: The effect of fiscal decentralization has been modeled to embody the political process and the possibility of asymmetric information across political agents. Description of Policy Challenges According to the paper, on an average major percentage of total stimuli package in infrastructure is spent in emerging economies as compared to developed economies. The policy-brief paper tried to link infrastructure spending to job creation across economies. In this section the paper mentioned the main challenge of gestation period of the infrastructure projects. It viewed the time differential in processing of such projects as a challenge, as it failed to produce the expected outcomes on the stipulated time during a crisis situation. It later pointed out how infrastructures in different areas bear different results. Infrastructural Investment in rural area created more jobs than in urban areas as the jobs in rural areas are more labour intensive. It said, â€Å"The policy challenge is to match the targeting of infrastructure investments with the targeting of employment creation, be it by category or geographic area.† It explained the challenge with the help of examples of policies in three economies: USA, Indonesia and Egypt. The paper said that in USA infrastructure expenses consists only a minor portion of the total fiscal stimulus. According to the paper, expenditures on infrastructure accumulated up to 30 September 2009 amounted to US$4.44 billion or 2.6 per cent of the total fiscal stimulus during the period. However, according to a few articles in Forbes and Bloomberg Obama is planning to spend highly on infrastructure like science research and education and upgrade bridges, ports and roads to create more jobs. (Runningen, 2013) (Lenzner, 2011). The amount spent by USA in infrastructure is huge but, if we consider the share of infrastructure in GDP is only 2.4%. In USA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was passed in 2009 which was a stimulus package to help recover the country from the Great Recession. The Act followed Keynesian macroeconomics wherein high public expenditure was necessary for improving the unemployment condition and further economic deterioration. USA’s planned stimulus package after revision was 831 billion dollars and according to Paul Krugman it was too less though he was supportive of the law. (Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman: Too Little Stimulus in Stimulus Plan, 2009) Some of the critics for this policy said that it was too slow and had a huge price tag but according to the data the policy had resulted in decrease in unemployment as the unemployment rate is around 6and half percentage points lower. (Blinder Zandi, 2010) The policy paper further gave examples of Indonesian and Egyptian stimulus package. The Indonesian Government spent 7.6 billion dollars to boost aggregate demand and this spending on infrastructure was 17% of the GDP. Estimation of the government to set a job creation target of over one million workers was surpassed. As for the Egyptian government the stimulus package was worth 2.82 billion dollar in the financial year 2008-09. According to various estimates it stated that the complete stimulus package is expected to create between 661,420 and 729,650 new job opportunities. This section of the policy paper concluded by mentioning that some amount of public expenditure (read infrastructure spending) is good as it helps in growth and development of economy through skill development of the labour and promotion of SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). It further wrote â€Å"spending cuts in such forms of investment would have a serious negative impact on employment and recovery unless ways could be found to maintain services with reduced costs.† Policy Options to address the challenge The examples illustrated above clearly reflect the issues related to the number of jobs created and the targeting of different sections of labour force. The focus of policy making in this area should shift from the amount of money spent to the number of jobs created relative to the set of employable workers and to the amount of public services provided. A prolonged strategy needs to be developed whose objective would be to provide short term relief from unemployment and long term creation of jobs aiming to meet the structural infrastructure deficits. Measures to guarantee timely implementation Higher public spending in periods of crisis for job creation involves a lag which is inherent in the cycle of identifying, formulating and approving projects. Therefore, objective should be a speedy and timely implementation, as an economy which is already in recession can deteriorate even quickly. The rate at which jobs can be created depends on the type of projects (large construction projects versus small or medium maintenance projects). Another important factor which determines the pace of the projects is the distribution of public tender procedures. A number of countries experience effective execution of public investment at less than 50% of the amount budgeted. Therefore, the short term objective is to achieve full execution of available resources rather than just allocation of additional resources. In order to ensure the timely implementation and to reap benefits from the existing administrational structures, public work schemes can be given additional funds to scale up. Taking up planned infrastructure and improving the efficiency of implementation of works formulated in public investment programmes are few of the features of the fiscal stimulus package. Decentralization of standard administrative procedures and dividing them into small grants at local levels to employ small-scale local contractors, labourers and local resources to efficiently enhance the employment opportunities of the infrastructure component of the packages is often a more effective than centrally planned and executed projects. Targeting Traditionally, the options of targeting were limited in public investment programmes, since majority of the works were generally executed by private enterprises. As objectives of targeting can be influenced to a certain degree through innovations to procurement systems hence, Public Employment Programmes, in which special targeting mechanisms can be applied, play an important complementary role. An important means of targeting constitutes the prioritization of investment projects in areas most affected by crisis. Subcontracting small works to local labourers allows for the targeting of special groups, such as women. In regular maintenance activities, women may take a larger share of job opportunities. Impact of infrastructure spending An investment in infrastructure is the first stepping stone towards the long run development and also takes into account immediate social needs. Generally, investments in infrastructure includes those in economic, such as, improving transportation viz. roads, railways and waterways and social sectors, such as health and education, treatment of water and sewage, and other public sectors. These investments depend mostly on the urgent requirements of the country. A major part of these expenditures can be executed through small-scale or medium-scale enterprises and thereby promoting them. Investments in infrastructure with a focus on the employment have a strong employment multiplier effect, since it leads to job creation both directly and indirectly. Increased usage of local goods and services creates a high indirect employment effect, which in turn leads to higher local incomes and thereby stimulates the local demand and consumption. However, this has to be taken cautiously as the way a job is defined varies from one country to another. There is no valid way to measure the direct employment created because of the fiscal stimulus package, as most countries face problems in gathering reliable data. Therefore, we need a consolidated effort to improving our way of understanding and documentation of the effects, in order to provide better guidance on the measures where the effects of multiplier are most prominent, given the requirements of the particular country. Conclusion Investments in infrastructure should be launched to build up capital for sustainable development and inclusive growth: human capital including skills, employment (including green jobs) and entrepreneurship development, and physical capital such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of infrastructure. As told earlier decentralized public investment should be preferred:- First, because decentralized decision-making processes are faster and local population more committed to the projects. It improves targeting and its proper use and maintenance. Secondly, the works undertaken are usually on a smaller scale and involve less expensive tenders, which mean there is less need for heavy machinery. Third, decentralized tenders are more likely to be executed by local firms using workers from the area, thus boosting the local economy as a whole. Because many infrastructure projects in low and medium countries are co- financed by international financial institutions, these institutions should make sure that their regulations allow for an increase in labour content in infrastructure development. Readjusting the design, procurement and contracting modalities of such products could have a major effect on employment. Works Cited Blinder, A. S., Zandi, M. (2010, December). Stimulas Worked. Retrieved from www.imf.org: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2010/12/blinder.htm Council-on-Foreign-Relations. (2014, March 4). Infrastructure. Retrieved from www.cfr.org: http://www.cfr.org/infrastructure/infrastructure/p26178 Lenzner, R. (2011, October 23). A $1.2 Trillion Infrastructure Plan Creates 27 Million Jobs In 5 Years. Retrieved from www.forbes.com: http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertlenzner/2011/10/23/the-u-s-wont-be-able-to-grow-again-until-2016-18/ Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman: Too Little Stimulus in Stimulus Plan. (2009, February 19). Retrieved from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/nobel-laureate-paul-krugman-too-little-stimulus-in-stimulus-plan/ Runningen, R. (2013, November 9). Obama Urges Infrastructure Spending to Spur U.S. Economy. Retrieved from www.bloomberg.com: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-09/obama-urges-infrastructure-spending-to-spur-u-s-economy.html Spending on transport infrastructure: Latest Data Released. (2013, July 11). Retrieved from www.internationaltransportforum.org: http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/Press/PDFs/2013-07-11Spending.pdf